NATIVE NORTH AMERICAN SPIRITUALITY OF THE EASTERN WOODLANDS, ed.
Elisabeth Tooker, Paulist Press, Mahwah, New Jersey, 1979.

This key collection of Native spiritual texts in translation begins
with a preface (pp. xi-xvii) by William C. Sturtevant mentioning the
vast differences between the varied spiritual traditions of Native
Americans (oral, attentive to visions and dreams, drawing on dance,
song, nature) and religions of Peoples of the Book. The preface also
enumerates the tremendous challenges in translating oral material in
Native languages into written English, especially in earlier
generations when recording technology was intrusive and in the
sparsity or the absence of competent linguists, keenly cognizant of
both languages and cultures.

The editor's introduction (pp. 1-30) mentions the great interest of
Europeans and their descendants in Amerindians, moves from the
universalism of previous generations to an emphasis on the
differences and difficulties of comprehension across linguistic and
cultural divides, states the focus on material spoken by Natives, on
ceremonial utterances, rather than more available folklore, and
addresses some of the distinctions between Native and White culture
and spirituality: for example, the persuasive quality of leadership
and manitou, wakanda and orenda, rendered spirit or power or force
when expressed in English, where debates flourish concerning the
animate nature of such a Native term. It is noted the category of
what Natives consider animate may vary from European assumptions,
e.g. lightening and steam would be included.

Chapter One, "Cosmology" (pp. 31-68) begins with the editor stating
that Native cosmological thought is founded on observations of
nature as acute and as intelligently considered as secular and
sacred Western concepts. The oral characteristics of the incomplete
body of surviving material, the free style of the Seneca text and
the closer phrasing of the Onondaga one are noted.

The Seneca account (pp. 35-47) tells how in the world beyond the sky
the chief, after a dream, married Mature Flowers. She was pregnant
and this bothered him. A dream advised pulling out the great tree in
the centre of that land. This left a hole and he forced her through
it. She fell with seeds. Muskrat brought up earth and this on
turtle's back was what allowed plants and trees to grow.

She had a daughter, whom wind loved, and from this love two boys
were born, Good Mind and Warty One. The elder helped his grandmother
prepare the grave for his mother. Mature Flowers called on her
daughter to prepare to welcome to the land beyond the sky the many
who will follow her there. Good Mind saw many beneficial plants grow
in the tomb of his mother. His grandmother taught him how to grow
many trees and plants. Warty One produced briars, thorns and
poisonous plants. Good Mind met his father and Wind gave him bags
whence emerged good birds and water creatures and land animals. From
Warty One came bugs, worms and rattlesnakes. He also turned some
good animals fierce.

Good Mind sprinkled stars and constellations into the night sky.
Some say the face of his mother is the sun and her breast the moon,
though others say otherwise. Good Mind, after provocation and a
struggle, forced Warty One into a cave. Good Mind met Defender who
acknowledged Good Mind's supremecy when a mountain obeyed only Good
Mind. Thunder appeared, offering to wash the earth, water vegetation
and slay evil beings. Good Mind shaped humans from clay, taught them
how to hunt, fish, honour Mature Flowers and dwell together in
harmony.

The Onondaga account (pp. 47-55) is preceeded by the editor's note
that a long telling of happenings prior to the marriage of Mature
Flowers to the chief of the land beyond the sky has been omitted.
The chief had a dream and summoned all to fulfill his dream. They
uprooted the central tree. The chief pushed Mature Flowers through.
Fire Dragon (Meteor) caught her, bore her down and gave her corn and
dried meat. She sat upon ducks. Ducks failed to reach the lake
bottom. Loon called for one who could. Muskrat brought up earth and
this was placed on turtle's back and there she sat. A daughter was
born to her. The girl grew. A man appeared and spoke of marriage.
She said she'd ask her mother, who on hearing his description
refused, and, when informed of her refusal, he changed back to a
fox. Racoon received the same answer. Mature Flowers accepted one
immune to witchcraft. He came with two arrows, one with a point, one
unpointed. She became pregnant and heard two males conversing before
birth. They were born, though their mother died. One was called Sky
Grasper, one Flint.

Then come almost three pages in which the editor explains the
Thanksgiving Address, spoken in all ceremonies, except those for the
dead, notes the inclusion here of Handsome Lake (d. 1815) and the
use of the term Creator, instead of Sky Holder.

"A Seneca Thanksgiving Address" (pp. 58-68) begins with the
Creator's call for gratitude: for each other, for our mother earth,
for medicines, for the berries used in the strawberry ceremony, and
for creeks, rivers, ponds and lakes

   Fresh water is available in abundance to us who move about on the
   earth. And, in fact, to all those things that he provided for our
   contentment, fresh water is abundantly available too. And it is
   true: We have been using it up to the present time. It is the
   first think we use when we arise each new time. When the new day
   dawns again, the first thing we use is water. And let there
   indeed be gratitude. p. 60

Let us be grateful for trees. They give us medicines and provide
warmth. Especially bestowed is maple syrup to remind us to be
grateful. Let us be thankful for animals. They give us food. Let us
be grateful for birds. They give us food and enrich our lives with
their music. Let us be thankful for our sisters (corn, beans and
squash) whom Handsome Lake told us to include in the four great
ceremonies ("Feather Dance, Thanksgiving Dance, rite of Personal
Chant, and Bowl Game"). Let us appreciate wind, rain, sun, day,
night, moon and stars. Let us be grateful for Handsome Lake and his
guiding words.

Chapter Two, "Dreams and Visions" (pp. 69-103), begins with the
editor commenting on social, rather than supernatural, sanction for
behaviour and the Native way of allowing one speaking to finish what
he has to say.

"A Winnebago Father's Teachings to His Son" (pp. 70-83) begins with
fasting to obtain favour of the spirits. This will empower one on
the warpath. One should not let women die before him, nor deprive
his sisters of the praise and blessings of a valiant brother. It is
difficult to lead. Better a warrior than one who carelessly causes
the death of any of our warriors. Give to the needy and take the
honour of counting coup. Don't exaggerate your exploits. If you die
in battle you remain conscious and can choose reinarnation as bird,
animal or human. Fasting permits you successful hunting and
provision of meat to your children. Treat your wife well. Be
hospitable. Care for the aged. Accept protective roots. Appeal in
need to spirits and offer tobacco. If you can, suck out objects
causing pain. Ask those who know to learn about healing plants.

There is paint medicine, overpowering all enemies and evil. There is
medicine: for racing, for riches, for sleeping, for wakefulness, for
protection of fields, and for many other things.

Be kind to your children. If you have money, help with the cost of
funerals and food for departing spirits. Don't gamble; even winning
brings bad luck. Heed not a woman dissuading you from the warpath.
Be not jealous. Children are told, so whatever they choose to do
when grown, they had knowledge of right and wrong. Ask and learn
this.

"The Menominee Puberty Fast" (pp. 84-85) states that the ancestors
fasted at puberty for spirit blessings. They cleansed their bodies.
They avoided food and drink. They described their vision to their
father. If it was evil, he bade the child eat. If it was an
appropriate vision, his father bade the child to continue to accept
the blessing.

"How the Spirits Might Bless a Winnebago" (pp. 85-87) states that
first a faster might experience many frightening things, as ghosts
and monsters chattered, whistled and even took his blanket. However,
if he persisted, by the fourth night, he would begin to hear the
appropriate voices encouraging him and promising him blessings.

"A Winnebago Vision Experience For War Powers" (pp. 87-88) tells how
a warrior while playing lacrosse with upper world people heard them
speak of courage in fighting. He went and fasted. Catfish and white
crane spirits came blessing weapons and promising that enemy bullets
would miss him.

"A Winnebago Vision Experience For Curing Power" (pp. 88-89) speaks
of a man who went for spirit blessing. Crying, he saw rain fall from
a previously clear sky. He saw rain, and he remained dry. A small
patch of sky just above him was blue. Spirits told him he could now
heal, and they painted a blue spot on his finger as a sign of this.

The editor mentions that Northern Algonqian and Iroquoian peoples
pay much attention to dreams.

"A Montagnais-Naskapi Dream" (pp. 90-91) tells of a man who dreamed
he was given a beaver, told how to cook and eat it and also where to
find more. He found a beaver in his trap, and went to the place
mentioned, smoked repeatedly and found more beaver.

"A Penobscot Dream" (p. 92) speaks of a man dreaming of a bird under
the ground. It emerged and the man's sick wife got better.

"A Penobscot Dreamer (pp. 92-93) describes an old woman who dreamt
of two overdue hunters. Fire was seen coming from her mouth. She
awoke, said all was well and they returned on the morrow.

"A Penobscot Account of Transformation" (pp. 93-94) tells of two
young men who went to scout out the Iroquois. The young men changed
into bear and panther. The Iroquois could not catch them.

"Another Penobscot Account of Transformation" (p. 94) describes a
porcupine with a human face bothering traps. They threw a stick at
it and it left. At home a shaman had the stick's mark on his face.

The editor notes shamanism, spirit learning and offering tobacco.

"A Winnebago Shaman's Curing Ritual" (pp. 96-98). Here is tobacco,
Fire, Buffalo, Grizzly Bear, Eel Chief, Turtle patron who named me
Pain Expeller, Rattlesnake, Night Spirits, Disease Averter,
Thunderbirds, Sun Grandmother Moon, Grandmother Earth, Chief of
Spirits, all who blessed me. Accept this tobacco and let the sick
one live.

Three short Menominee offerings are quoted on pp. 99-100, then a
longer one on pp. 100-103 which tells how a man when twenty hunted
near water where his granfather said dwelt a spirit. He offered
tobacco and it was accepted. He came to a meal. After three days of
poor hunting, he offered tobacco and called for spirit help. He saw
very quickly two bears, shot them and his family had food to eat.

Chapter Three, "Delaware Big House Ceremonial" (pp. 104-124) begins
with building the special house after earth quaked, describing the
construction, including the carved faces painted half black, half
red. A man and woman from the three divisions of the Delaware (Wolf,
Turtle, Turkey) are chosen to preside at the ceremony. Thanksgiving
is offered to the various spirits, including those of the four
directions, the Thunderer bringing rain, the Earth and the Creator.

Visions are recited, including Elkhair's. He was mourning his
younger brother when a spirit came and blessed him. This is told to
drumming, dancing and references to the carven faces.

J.C. Webber told of his mother scolding him for reading like a white
man rather than focusing on the forest. She said the spirits would
not bless him. When grown he dreamed and spirits reassured him.

There are ceremonial items: drumsticks with carven faces, cedar, red
ochre, prayer sticks, wampum, turtle rattles. There are: cedar fed
to fire and its purifying smoke, three wampum beads for each person,
painting each person with red ochre, eating hominy and meat,
"singing the fire out" on the twelfth night, thanksgiving the next
morning and the ceremony's purpose: blessings, good crops,
everything beneficial.

Chapter Four, "Winnebago Night Spirits Society Ceremonial" (pp. 125
to 143), begins with the introduction that those blessed by the same
spirits join together. At least four Winnebago societies existed
(Buffaloes, Ghosts, Grizzly Bears and Night Spirits).

There are: hunting for meat for the feast, building the lodge, and
making, painting with charcoal and presenting the invitation sticks,
placing two drums and two gourds, tobacco smoking by the four
invited representing the directions, singing, circling inside the
lodge. The host rises and speaks of the origin of the ceremony and
of beneficial medicines. Two women lead the dancing. Gourds are
shaken, drums pounded, songs sung. Counter clockwise starting with
the east, those invited directions speak and pass around the pipes.
More speaking, singing, drumming, circling the lodge inside occur.
The host speaks. There's a closing procession. Each direction in
turn hosts a succeeding night, so this is a five night festival, or
"Sore-eyed Dance."

Chapter Five, "Menominee Bundle Ceremonials" (pp. 144-163) is
introduced with references to the variable level of esteem among
Natives for medicine bundles. Then comes the account of beaver,
weasel, mink, bird asking Me'napus to include them in the bundle.
Me'napus learned to use this bundle of much medicine. This is not
for an ordinary man. No woman may touch it. In time of need, the
bundle owner and those in need go to a good place, the bundle is
opened to concealing songs about old leaves, humble songs about
childhood and affirmations about successful hunting. The figure of a
deer is drawn on the ground. The small bow and arrow from the bundle
are used to shoot it. One man may hold his hands near his head as
antlers, another may represent a doe. Sometimes only part of the
bundle is used.

Once, at a time of adverse fighting, Club-in-hand fasted and dreamed
he should go west. He awoke and departed with seven others. They
travelled to the Western Ocean, built an elm-bark canoe, sailed for
days and met Thunderbirds. The Chief Thunderbird who presented a
bundle, instructed concerning the offering of tobacco to it, its
contents (egg and powder to start fire, little bow and arrow, red
paint and carved image of the Chief Thunderbird), how to use it
calling for aid, and how to show respect to it always. Thunderbirds
provided food to Club-in-hand and those with him, who returned home
bearing the bundle.

When Menominee leaders declared war bearing red painted wampum to
invite the clans to fight. Hair was cut to make taking the scalp
easier. After going a ways, warriors paused for a ceremony. Tobacco
was smoked. A dog was eaten. There was the war dance. They proceeded
and generally near first light they attacked, after a sacred chant
and distribution of holy items from the bundle. The leader bearing
the bundle stayed to guard it. Afterwards, they returned to the
ceremonial place for the scalp dance.

Chapter Six, "Fox Clan Ceremonials" (pp. 164-216), begins by
considering clans (usually thought of as unilineal descent groups,"
though some accept their more spiritual nature) mentions composition
in Fox syllabic and the tripartite (spirit contact with ceremony's
originator, original ceremonial performance and future performing
advice) nature of the ceremony.

Once there were two boys. Their father would not tell them to fast.
One became sick. One healer failed. A second was successful. He
urged fasting, heeded by one son. The father and other son died. The
survivor was a great one for fasting. One winter a green buffalo was
seen behind him. His people wished to cross a swamp and asked him to
lead them. He had them paint him green and follow in his footsteps.
They crossed. He listened to wolves who told him of coming weather.
He fasted again and was told in dream that he had fasted enough and
would be blessed. His people in canoes passed enemies who didn't
notice them. The protecting wolf passed walking on water. The son
ate no buffalo. He dreamed he should run. He ran to the sea in the
west and the sea in the south. When a deer killed the chief, he
chased it, caught it and saw it turn into a Sioux.

There came a chieftain sky, green as the green buffalo, spirit of
hereditary chiefs. The son saw a great green buffalo. When he went
near he saw only the hide. It was red beneath the green. He wrapped
it. When he was sick, the hide spoke to him and a green buffalo bore
him quickly. His mother was gone. He wished to see her. Wolves told
him to stay. Buffalo told him to cross the hill to see her. He went.
He saw her. Fire spoke, sang songs and told him that rock man would
speak to him. Next day a boulder spoke and sang songs to him.

He dreamed of the blessing house, of its four doors facing four
directions. Four men shapes came in the doors, and that the son was
blessed and given songs as he fasted. The Green Buffalo spoke to the
Great Spirit about blessing the son. Buffaloes taught the son circle
dancing and offering maple syrup, maple cakes and pumpkins, as well
as decorous behaviour. The son awoke and a wolf told him he'd slept
for four years. It brought him to where his mother was. There he
built the blessing house. A War Chiefs' clan member was attendant.
So shall it be always. Wolf Clan members were invited and told what
the spirits had said. He sang the songs as instructed, mentioning
the buffaloes. He spoke of the food and of the appropriate talk. The
ceremony was conducted appropriately. People went to their houses.

Chapter Seven, "Winnebago Clan Ceremonials" (pp. 217-267), begins
with the two kinds of ceremonies (clan and general). Four chickens
are obtained for the Snake Clan festival held in the fall. Four main
participants are invited. The bundle has four snakeskins in it. The
host addresses Grandfather Fire offering tobacco. Snake is offered
tobacco, food and eagle feathers. The snake participant speaks of
his unworthiness, the four chickens being prepared, snake blessings
and gratitude. The feast is eaten. Cedar is burned. Plates and
spoons are held in its purifying smoke. The host expresses gratitude
and farewell greeting.

The Thunderbird clan have a sweat bath in the evening followed by
their winter feast. A sweat lodge address to the spirits offers
tobacco and calls on Earthmaker, Chief Thunderbird, Black Hawk,
Night Spirits, Disease Averter, Sun, Moon, Earth, Eagle pair and all
spirits to whom the speaker's ancestors prayed.

The editor introduces the feast's eleven bleached buckskins for
spirits represented by a member from each clan, hunting deer for the
feast, offering also tobacco and a strangled dog. The host speaks
after opening the war bundle.

Earthmaker, Chief Thunderbird, Night Spirits, Disease Averter, Sun,
Earth, Moon, Chief Eagle, Day, South Wind, North Wind, Black Hawk,
here are our offerings (buckskins, food, tobacco) to you. Favour us,
support us, grant us courage in battle, success in our struggles,
life healthily, worthily, honourably lived. We are trying to give
you these buckskins, these moccasins for you spirits. Forgive our
inadequacy and ignorance of precise ritual and accept our gifts, our
tobacco, our songs.

I, your host, greet you bearers of war bundles. Thank you for
coming. Now, however inadequately, let us attempt the songs, knowing
the spirits will forgive us our ignorance and failing.

I, first guest, greet especially the young men. Dance to attract
honour in battle.

I, your host, remind you of the origin of paint, previously placed
in our warbundle. Sing now, however inadequately, of paint.

I, your host, remind you of Disease Averter sanctifying the flute.
We honour him with our gifts and by playing on the flute.

I, your host, remind you of fasting for the favours of the Night
Spirits. However inadequately, let us sing to them.

The editor notes that this is followed by feasting.

I, first guest, greet you bearers of war bundles. Earthmaker accept
these offerings and give courage and life.

I, second guest, greet you all and thank you for pleading with
spirits on my behalf. Thunderbird, favour us with life, courage and
honour in battle.

I, third guest, greet you all, express gratitude for this ideal
feast actually achieved. How can the spirits fail to acknowledge
this?

I, fourth guest, greet you. How can the spirits, how can Disease
Averter not see these offerings? Surely blessings will come.

I, fifth guest, greet you. We have come alive from battle because we
offered tobacco and were blessed. I thank the host and all who
poured tobacco, offered buckskins and red feather.

I, sixth guest, greet you. Let the spirits accept our gifts and let
us live worthily the life they give.

I, seventh guest, greet you. Honoured am I to assume the role of a
spirit. Spirits, accept our offering and confer courage and life.

I, your host, greet you and thank you for feasting and speaking so
well.

The chapter continues with the sweeping of the lodge, more meat,
tobacco, speeches, including those of the eighth to eleventh guests,
singing. Then a victory cheer is sounded four times, Disease Averter
is urged to ensure health, all present pour tobacco and leave.

Chapter Eight, "Iroquois Ceremnials" (pp. 268-281) begins with the
editors note about self reliance, both practical and spiritual
(personal dreams and visions) when one ranges in sparsely inhabited
land, and the importance of rituals in communities. Iroquois
festivals are named (Green Corn, Maple, Planting, Strawberry, Green
Bean, Harvest, Midwinter), and the renewal aspect of the Midwinter
ritual is noted.

   In an important sense, the ceremonies given during the year
   recognize that the Creator has continued these things: the Maple
   ceremony that the sap again flows in the maple trees; the
   Strawberry ceremony that the berries appeared again; the Grean
   Bean, Green Corn, and Harvest ceremonies that the Three Sisters
   -- corn, beans, and squash -- have come again; and the less
   frequently given Sun, Moon, and Thunderer ceremonies that these
   things also continue. As one Iroquois stated it, "At the
   Midwinter Festival we beg the Creator for everything; most of the
   time we are thanking him for what he gave us." p.270

"Excerpts From an Onondaga Cosmological Myth" (pp. 271-281) urges
thankful gatherings with the first new crops and performance of the
four rituals, enjoins widdershins circle dancing, lists the
ceremonies, speaks of the grateful attitude, and provides some
ceremonial details, for example, the role of adolescents in the
Strawberry Festivals.

Chapter Nine, "Southeastern Indian Formulas" (pp. 282-293), begins
with William C. Hurtevant's mention of the perhaps greater role in
the Southeast of trained ritual specialists and the use of the
Cherokee syllabary which Sequoyah invented in 1821 for magical
texts. There follow magical texts for healing, gambling, love and
success in battle.

Michael McKenny April 16-21, 2003


Solarguard Amerindian



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