BUREBISTA AND HIS TIME, Ion Horatiu Crisan, transl. Sanda
Mihailescu, Bibliotheca Historica Romaniae, Bucharest, 1978

This thoroughly fascinating volume commences with a three page
preface comparing the towering Daco-Getic ruler to his Roman
contemporary Caesar, mentioning the paucity of literary and
inscriptional remains and noting the advances in archaeological
investigations.

Chapter I, "Internal Premises" (pp. 11-30), begins with the origin
of the concept of La Tene and the extent and characteristics of La
Tene civilization:

   The La Tene culture is mainly characterized by substantial
   advances over the previous period which are materialized in the
   widespread use of iron metallurgy, iron implements and weapons,
   the potter's wheel, the development of handicrafts, the emergence
   of the tribal aristocracy and the intensification of commercial
   exchanges. p. 11

Next comes the geographical cradle (Upper Rhine and Danube) of the
Celts, the widespread Celtic diffusion, the Graeco-Roman terms
Celtae, Galli, Galatai, the two precise dates 390 (Rome) and 278
(Delphi) connected with Celtic expansion, the disunion and mutual
hostility of the different Celtic tribes and Celtic technological
and artistic creativity.

Then there's consideration of Celtic settlements in Dacia:

   Inside the Carpathian arch the map of localities known so far for
   Celtic remains points to the existence of three groups. The first
   group covering the northwestern area, belongs to the large Celtic
   branch established in the upper Tisza basin and spreads across
   vast stretches of land in what is known today as Slovakia and
   Hungary. The second and smaller group lies in the region of Arad,
   representing the easternmost limit of Celtic expansion between
   the rivers Tisza, Crisul Alb and Mures. The third group occupies
   about the whole of the Transylvanian basin, reaching, in some
   areas, down to the foot of the Carpathians. Many of the Celtic
   necropolises were found in the fertile valleys of the great
   Transylvanian rivers like the Mures, the two Tirnava, the Somes
   and the Olt. p. 17

There is reference to waves of Celtic settlement from the mid Fourth
Century, to heavily settled Celtic areas and to Celtic settlement
further east to and even beyond the Dneister. One interesting point
is the location of Ptolemy's (III.10.7) Britolagi, or Britogalli, in
Moldavia.

There follows some discussion of the inter-relationship of the Celts
and the Daco-Getae, and the LaTenization of the local Hallstatt
culture. This includes increased use of iron, resulting increased
agricultural production and population increase. The rising
Daco-Getic culture had some distinctions (Thracian ploughs,
imitation Delian or Megarian bowls) from the Celts, as well as
typically Celtic contributions, such as oppida (though later dava
have Greek features).

Chapter II, "External Premises" (pp. 31-37), begins with heroic
Getae resistence to the Persians c. 514, to the Scythians in the
Fourth Century, to Alexander the Great's general Zopyron who fell
with some thirty thousand of his men, to the Hellenistic Successors
and to the Romans. The expansion of Rome into the Balkans and
Western Asia is outlined. There was significant fighting with
various peoples, including Celts. Roman preoccupation with the
formidable Mithridates and civil strife in Rome provided opportunity
to Burebista.

Chapter III, "The First and Greatest of the Thracian Kings" (pp. 38-
71), begins with Classical (most significantly Strabo's) references
to the unifying work of the great leader, his success against other
peoples, including Celts, his fostering of prosperity and the scope
of his achievements.

   Like all the Daco-Getae, Burebista had only one name as was the
   usage with most of the Indo-Europeans. p. 42

   The very significance of his name apparently stood for 'the most
   brilliant', 'the most powerful', 'the noble'. p. 41

There is reference to Burebista's military and political genius, to
the oral society he ruled and the loss of much memory about him,
including his now unknown physical appearance. Next is examined the
decree by the citizens of Dionysopolis to Akornion. A fragmentary
marble inscription is in the National Museum in Sofia. The Greek
original text, including some modern filling in of gaps, is on page
47. The inscription and its relation to Burebista is discussed on
pages 46 and 48-63. Included is the debated inscriptional mention
and role of Burebista's father and a speculative permanent seat of
royal power.

   The only conclusion to be reached concerning the first existing
   lines of the Dionysopolis inscription paying tribute to Akornion
   is that they are not visible enough and that the diplomatic
   mission of Akornion, who travelled far away to meet somebody's
   father in Zargedava or Argedava, is referred to pretty
   ambiguously. One can also assert that Akornion's first diplomatic
   errand to the son of that somebody did not seem to have pleased
   the people of Dionysopolis. Hence his second mission, this time
   to that father who must have been a man of great authority since
   he was able to exempt the Dionysopolis people from that something
   which we assume to be the tribute. p. 61

   If evidence of a permanent capital to satisfy the needs of a
   great king can be found neither at Popesti, nor in the fortresses
   of the Orastie Mts. or in any other part of the Daco-Getic space,
   the question arises whether such a capital of which no mention is
   made in written sources and no archaeological diggings brought to
   light, had ever existed? in our opinion, the answer to this
   question is negative. p. 63

There's mention of four Daco-Getan areas on the basis of
numismatical analysis and Strabo's record of the division of
Burebista's realm into five and then four parts after the great
king's death. This leads to the tribal groupings before Burebista's
emergence and debates concerning his origins. Most favour either
Walachia or Transylvania.

Chapter Four, "Internal Policy" (pp. 72-112), begins with the Romans
in the Balkans up to the formation of the province of Moesia by
Tiberius in 15 C.E. It proceeds:

   If the process of unification achieved by Burebista can find no
   explanation in threats from outside or in religious motifs, it
   means that the process evolved in a different manner and had
   different causes. These causes cannot lie elsewhere than in the
   internal development of the Daco-Getic society, plus the
   exceptional qualities with which its founder was endowed. There
   is no direct reference to this in literary sources which keep
   silent about the way in which Burebista carried out the major
   work of his life: the unification of the Daco-Getic tribes across
   the Carpatho-Danubian space. Given this situation, we shall try
   to see to what extent we can use available data about other
   peoples at approximately the same level on the ladder of social
   evolution. p. 77

Caesar's references to Celts (Dumnorix of the Aeduii, Orgetorix of
the Helvetii, Vercingetorix, unifier of the Gauls) are produced as
evidence noble birth, wealth, possession of clients and debtors and
high popular esteem were important factors. The support of the
druids, for example, Diviciacus for his brother Dumnorix, provide
understanding to Strabo's reference to Burebista being aided by the
wizard Deceneus. Deceneus also prophesized for Burebista. While some
external hostilities took place, internal Daco-Getic fighting gave
way to pacific activities, to respect for law and to sobriety.

There is reference to 32 coin deposits found and the theory these
indicate instability in the period of their burial. This and Celtic
correspondences suggest opposition to Burebista's centralizing role
from some aristocrats. Also, Burebista seems to have presided over a
period of the abolition of local coinage and the use throughout the
Daco-Getic realm of perfect duplicates of Roman coins.

   The discovery of the Tilisca workshop clarified the question of
   the Dacian mint under Burebista. The latter did not order his
   effigy to be engraved on the coinage, but demanded instead the
   reproduction of the Roman republican denarius which tended to
   become a 'universal' currency, a fact duly grasped by Burebista.
   More than 20,000 such coins have been discovered until now,
   exceeding the number of those found in Thrace, Pannonia, Germany
   and even Gaul. p. 87

This leads to mention of widespread trade by Romans into Germany,
the Celtic lands, the Balkans and by Romans, Greeks and Celts in
Dacia.

   Burebista's time was also marked by developments in the
   urbanistic sphere. New fortresses were added to the older ones.
   Earth walls were superseded by stone walls after the Greek and
   Celtic pattern. Burebista must be credited with having designed
   and realized with the help of craftsmen brought from the
   west-Pontic Greek cities the whole system of fortifications in
   the Orastie Mts. which even today captures the imagination by its
   magnificence. To the same period are dated also the sanctuaries
   of the religious centre at Gradistea Muncelului. p. 89

This leads to the army and varying opinions as to the armed strength
Burebista could assemble, as well as to the total Dacian population.
There is a look at court titles, at the role of members of
Burebista's family, such as his brother, and at the influence of
priests.

Next comes a look at social development in the context of Marxist
idealogy with the joint ownership of property by Daco-Getic
villagers. Caesar's Celtic correspondences are again drawn on. While
Caesar lacks the clarity to permit the identification of a Celtic
state, Strabo is translated as using the word for Burebista and the
great king did rule over more than a tribe or even a tribal
confederacy. The issue of slavery is raised and its greater
connection with Rome than with Dacia.

Chapter V, "External Policy" (pp. 113-137), mentions the lack of
firm dates for Burebista's reign, noting his conquest of the Greek
west Pontic cities (55-48) and his assassination (44). As the Boii
moved westward into Caesar's ken in 59-58, Burebista is thought,
though not unanimously, to have defeated them and the Taurisci
shortly before that date. Some of the contrary argumentation is
based on numismatic evidence. Critasiros was leader of the Boii who
dominated other tribes on the Middle Danube until their overwhelming
defeat at the hands of Burebista.

There follow moves against the Scordisci, the Greek cities on the
west Pontus, other peoples in the east, and thrusts into Macedonia.
Literary and archaeological evidence is presented, including from
Dio Chrysostum and Ovid, as well as the traces of fire found at
Hisria dated to the mid First Century. The eastern peoples who were
defeated included the Samartians and the Bastarnae.

There is the diplomatic activity of the great king, much of it
unrecorded, though the Akornion inscription mentions that
ambassador's favourable visit to Pompey just before Pompey's defeat
at Pharsalus. Regretably, this turned Caesar into an enemy, but
before Caesar got around to acting on that animosity, both rulers
were assassinated.

Chapter VI, "The Realm" (pp. 138-149), considers the area of the
Daco-Getic kingdom. Page 139 locates it on a map of Europe. There is
discussion of early Thracian settlements in Slovakia (750-550).

   Archaeological finds clearly indicate, therefore, that in the 3rd
   and 2nd centuries B.C. the Slovak territory was inhabited by a
   Daco-Getic population representing the basic ethnic element upon
   which the Celts were superposed. p. 141

The eastern border is the Pontus (Black Sea) from Olbia to
Apollonia. The western border is the middle Danube. South the border
was the Balkan (Haemus) range.

Chapter VII, "Fortresses and Fortified Settlements of the Dava Type"
(pp. 150-192), begins with scant references in the literary sources
(none for the period of Burebista), briefly comments on two of some
twenty Moldavian fortresses from the 6th to 3rd Centuries and then
provides an impressive archaeological inventory of 58 Daco-Getic
dava (pp. 151-168). Among these is included impressive Popesti, 25km
from Bucharest, inhabited since the Bronze Age, with Hallstatt
fortification, the earth vallum vitrified according to early Iron
Age technique. Timber and wattle structures have been uncovered and
tiled dwellings in Hellenistic style. A c. 100 Hellenistic
influenced princely court (rooms, corridors, barns) has been
uncovered. Iron implements and weapons, grinding mills, gold, silver
and bronze artefacts, including Celtic style La Tene fibulae, and
coins, including imitations of Alexander the Great gold coins, were
found at the site tentatively identified as Argedava.

There is Covasna on a promontory at an altitude of 930 metres with a
wall two metres thick and coins indicating occupation from the 1st
Century B.C.E. to Trajan's Wars. There is Poiana occupied from the
Bronze Age, especially active in Burebista's time, fortified with a
three metre high earth vallum, a fosse and a strong timber palisade
at the top of the hill.

The list is stated to be incomplete. The common feature of easily
defensible height, hill or promontory is mentioned along with the
East European fortification of such sites from as early as the
Neolithic. Celtic oppida are considered and W. Dehn's threefold
classification of them, as well as Caesar's use of various Latin
words (urbs, oppidum, vicus, aedificium, murus gallicus, castellum).
Celtic and Daco-Getic fortifications are compared and contrasted
(Greek and Roman influences leading to Daco-Getic use of squared
stone and mortar, Celtic, but not Daco-Getic, enclosure of large
areas within walls, e.g. Manching 380 hectares, Zavist 170 hectares
near Prague, Mt. Beuvray in Gaul 135 hectares).

   Archaeological and numismatic discoveries, made in the
   Daco-Getic fortified settlements amply demonstrate their
   character of production centres. Vestages have been found
   everywhere of foundaries, workshops for the working of bronze and
   iron, joiners' and potters' workshops, workshops for the working
   of silver and gold, for the curing of hides and for many other
   materials. Also jewellers' workshops where money were coined.
   p. 175

There are evidences from Burebista's time of extensive trading, of
economic prosperity and of profound religious activity. Ptolemy's
list of forty Dacian cities is mentioned and attempts to identify
them with archaeological sites.

Next comes the Orastie Mts. complex, "A system of fortifications
unequalled in the whole of Europe." (p. 178) The stone was
transported scores of kilometres.

   Suffice it to say that the walls built here run into scores of
   kilometres, most of which are 4-5 metres high with sections where
   they attain a height of 8-10 metres or even more as in the case
   of the inner wall of the sacred ward of Gradista. Let us not
   forget that each wall had two paraments of quite considerable
   size and were worked with great craftsmanship inspite of their
   poor facework. p. 177

The walls are generally 2-4 metres thick and considered to be the
work of Greek masons following the absorption of the west Pontic
cities by Burebista. There follows separate consideration of some,
"fortresses, castle-forts and isolated defence and watch towers"
(p. 180), included in the complex. There was Piatra Rosie peak:

   To dare build a stone-walled fortress on a huge isolated rock
   surrounded by precipices was a great and exciting undertaking. It
   looks very much like a giant nest of vultures that could only be
   approached just like today from the narrow spur of the hill on
   the eastern side of the fortress. It was through here that they
   carried the scores of thousands of rocks used in building the
   walls needed to ensure a reliable shelter to those whose task was
   to check the advance of any enemy using the Strei valley to reach
   the narrower Luncani valley, the only one approaching the Dealul
   Gradistii hill. p. 181

The fort was commanded by a significant warrior and housed his
warband. Other sites considered include: Costesti, Blidaru, Capilna,
Banita, Dealul Gradistii (the sacred mountain at the centre of the
kingdom). Next comes several pages examining wall construction.

Chapter VIII, "Culture" (pp. 193-240), begins by stating the
extensive nature of the topic. There is the material level, such as
the iron for agricultural implements: ploughs, hoes, pruning knives,
scythes and sickles, and for other implements: hammers, tongs,
anvils, files, chisels, axes, saws, fish hooks, and scissors (pp.
194-208). There is pottery. There is the potter's wheel borrowed
from the Celts. There is Greek inspired archetecture, including for
temples.

   As a rule, the dwellings of the Daco-Getae and of other peoples
   contemporaneous with them, such as the Celts, Thracians,
   Illyrians and others, were built in perishable material like
   wooden beams or wattle and daub. Remains of such dwellings are
   meagre enough and their reconstitution all the more difficult.
   pp. 214-215

Trade is mentioned and Dacian coinage, often good imitations of
Greek and Roman coins. Then comes Daco-Getic craftsmanship and
artistry, such as painted pottery. There is reference to at least
the precursors to literacy. There are inscribed letters, Greek and
invented, that could be identifying deities or significant humans.
There are letters on implements such as hammers. There are the
blocks thought possibly to be inscribed with astronomical and
calendrical calculations. There is an inscribed vase. There is
reference to the Celts and to druidic prohibition against recording
their teachings. This leads to Jordanes's assertion that Deceneus,
Burebista's wizard, taught ethics, physics, logic and astronomy.
According to Jordanes, Deceneus, unlike the druids, encouraged some
of this learning to be written down.

Next come some dozen pages on Daco-Getic religion. There is
diversity of modern opinions, with most scholars favouring
Indo-European polytheism. Zamolxis was the chief god. The Greeks
connected him to Pythagoras. Zamolxis had a hall where he taught
immortality. Associating the name Zamolxis with the word zemel
(land) and the Earth Goddess Semele lead to considerations of
Zamolxis as an Earth god concerned with nature, the land, death,
rebirth and eternal life. There is Gebeleizis (or Nebeleizis, or
Zebeleizis) god of thunder and patron of warriors. There is mention
of some archaeological finds, including a dagger decoration
varyingly identified as Cernunos and the goddess Bendis (of moon,
forest and magic).

   The fact that the same representation is so differently
   interpreted by individual researchers proves the unreliability of
   such clues, let alone the downright uncertainty as to their
   representing a deity at all. p. 233

Jordanes mentions a war god offered trophies and, "spoils hung on
trees" (p. 233). Herodotus describes the despatch every five years
of an envoy to Zamolxis. He was tossed onto spear points and
insulted if he remained alive. There were goddesses: the wife of
Zamolxis, a goddess of the hearth, a goddess of woods, moon and
magic, Bendis.

There is belief in life after death. Eliade discounts Daco-Getic
belief in reincarnation. There are priests, including 'smoke rovers'
(p. 235) thought by Eliade to have ecstatic use of hemp, and also
some vegetarian unwed priests.

The chapter closes with a summing up of Daco-Getic culture, stated
as being one of two (with the Celts) important highly developed
European peoples outside the Roman Empire at the time of Burebista.
There is: iron, pottery, archetecture, spirituality (with Diodorus
Siculus naming three great philosophers: Moses, Zarathustra and
Zamolxis).

Chapter IX, "The End" (pp. 241-249), mentions the paucity of
sources, so that it is a modern deduction that Burebista was
assassinated, on the grounds that so dominant a ruler could not have
lived after being overthrown. The date is thought, not unanimously,
to be 44. The connection of his overthrow to Roman designs, to
tribal tensions, to some aristocrats opposing the extent of
Burebista's power, to class struggle, etc. can only be conjectured.

Burebista's role as the founder of the unified Daco-Getic state is
significant. He is praised for his building of impressive
fortifications, for the economic progress and prosperity he
fostered by such means as the minting of 'universal' coins, for his
military prowess, for the stimulation of learning during his reign,
etc.

Anyone who has read so far likely needs no further encouraging words
about so absorbing a book. The book was read and this synopsis hand
written within the 25 hours from 10:30 AM on December 25th and 11:30
AM on December 26th, 2002 C.E. This was typed from about Noon to Six
PM on the 26th of December, 2002 C.E. Michael McKenny



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