Irish Literature

Irish literature covers basically the period 700 to 1200 A.D., in terms
of extant manuscripts, but the oral tradition behind this goes back to
the continental druid schools.

Tradition is an essential portion of Celtic literatures, based as they
are on verbatim oral recitation, handed down from generation to
generation. In Ireland, the class to which poets belonged was called
the aos dana. There were two levels of poets, the filidh and the bards.
Filidh, it is thought, had inherited some of the distinctive features
of the two major classes named by Iulius Caesar: the "druides" and the
"vates". They possessed the great learning of the druids and the power
of prophecy ("vaticinatio") of the vates. Little is known of them
except through the laws.

In this essay, we shall review the major cycles of Irish literature
with a glance at early Welsh mythological literature of the Mabinogi.
Each cycle will be dealt with separately, and two or three episodes
will be highlighted, lack of space preventing the exposition of more.

The Mythological Cycle

The roots of mythological tales are contained in the belief of the aes
sidhe. Around this ancient belief grew tales of a semi-historical
nature that are related to the ancient pantheon of the continental
Celts. In the main volume of mythology, the Leabhar Gabhala Eireann, we
may see a cloudy memory of actual invasions of Ireland, often confused
and in disorder.

The aes sidhe were known as the Tuatha De Danann, the People of the
Goddess Danu, who are said to have come to Ireland when it was
inhabited by a race called the Fomoiri. The main characters have been
traced to continental Europe, in other pantheons, but here are
represented as members of an older race possessing magical powers:
Lugh, Nuadhu, the Daghdha and Brighid. They also appear in other forms,
suitably adapted, in the Welsh Mabinogi.

The principal tales are: Cath Maige Tuired (1) and the Tochmarc Etaine.
Around these two revolve other stories with clearly mythological
essence, though utilizing heroes of other cycles, to wit Seirglige Con
Culann Ocus Oenet Emire and Immran Brain. We shall study here the two
principals: Cath Maige Tuired and Tochmarc Etaine.

Cath Maige Tuired

The Cath Maige Tuired is divided into two battles, both of which occur
at the same place.

It begins with the arrival of the Tuatha De Danann in Ireland and their
alliance with the Fomoiri against the Fir Bolg (Belgi?). Balor gives
his daughter Eithne to the Tuatha De Cian, son of Diancecht. From this
union is born Lugh. The battle and eventual defeat of the Fir Bolg, at
great cost to the Tuatha De, constitutes the first battle of Moytura.
The most important is the second battle, because of its mythological
allusions. Nuadha, king of the Tuatha De loses his right arm in battle
and another one in silver is made for him by Diancecht the Healer, with
the help of Creidne the smith. He is then known as Nuadha Airgetlamh.

The loss of his right arm encurs the loss of his power (2) and his
successor Bress, half Fomoiri half Tuatha De, favored the Fomoiri.
Bress imposed heavy taxes to support the Fomoiri and forced Oghma and
the Daghdha to build him a palace. The Tuatha De demanded his
abdication and he went to the Fomoiri for help, having requested a wait
of seven years. Nuadha, in his absence, ruled from Tara, his right arm
having been restored. As he was giving a feast, Lugh samildanach
approaches the fortress. The conversation between Lugh and the
gatekeeper contains the list of Lugh's arts. He is named head of the
armies and prepares for the Fomoiri invasion for seven years.

The old Celtic gods appear in this battle of Moytura: Oghma, the
Daghdha, Goibhniu, Diancecht, Creidne and the Morrighan. Each promises
to be of aid to the Tuatha De by use of magic.

The battle occured in the year 3,303 of the creation of the world
(approx. 1,000 B.C.). Nuadha was killed and Lugh destroyed the power of
Balor of the Baleful Eye, his grandfather, by a slingshot that disloged
his eye (3) that could immobilize a whole army. During the retreat of
the Fomoiri, Oghma dies. Afterwards, all the Tuatha De are ressucitated
in the fountain of life.

Tochmarc Etaine

This story covers many periods. It is the most beautiful of the
mythological cycle.

Oengus (In Mac Og) was born of a tryst between the Daghdha and Boann,
wife of Elcmar (or Nechtan). The circumstances of his birth were
magical. When he reached adulthood, he was instructed by his father the
Daghdha on how to obtain the power of the Bruigg from Elcmar. He became
king of the Bruigg na Boyne.

Midir of Bri Leith, in payment for injuries inflicted on him at the
Bruigg, requested from Oengus the most beautiful girl in all of
Ireland, Etain. Oengus and the Daghdha paid the exorbitant bride-price
for Etain and she went with Midir. His first wife, Fuamnach, changed
her into a fly. Etain followed Midir and he knew it was her by the
sweet song. She was driven away by a magical wind caused by Fuamnach,
wandered for seven years, was found and returned by Oengus, driven away
again and fell into the cup of the wife of an Ulsterman, Etar of Inber
Cichmaine. She was swallowed and reborn as Etain, daughter of Etar.

Eochaid Airem married Etain and his brother Ailill fell sick of love
for her. Eochaid left for a royal tour of Ireland and left Etain at
home to bury his brother. She maid a tryst with Ailill, but he fell
magically asleep for three nights and Midir, in the shape of Ailill,
trysted with her. He told her who he was and asked her to come with him
but she said she wouldn't go without her husband's consent.

Midir anonymously visited Eochaid and played fidchell with him. He lost
three games but won the fourth. As a Prize he demanded to embrace
Etain. Eochaid requested a grace of a month and fortified the residence
but Midir anters nonetheless and embraces Etain. They fly away in the
form of swans. Midir eventually returns to Eochaid and tells him that
she whom he thinks is Etain is in fact their daughter. The child was
cast out but gre up among herdsmen. She became the wife of Etarscele
and the mother of Conaire.

This story brings us right up to another: Toghail Bruidne Ua Derga.

ULSTER CYCLE

The basic story of the Ulster cycle is the Tain Bo Cuailnge. Others are
Longes Mac Nusnig, Aided Oenfir Aife, Fled Bricrenn and the Tochmarc
Eimher. The TAIN BO CUAILNGE possesses as well a number of remscela and
foscela concerning Conchobar Mac Nessa and Cu Chulainn. We shall deal
here with the Longes Mac Nusnig (also known as the "Story of Deidriu")
and the Tochmarc Eimher, dispensing with the Tain Bo Cuailnge as it is
too long and fairly well known.

Longes Mac Nusnig

In this remscela to the Tain Bo Cuailnge, we find the explanation for
the exile of Fergus Mac Roich in Connacht, and his subsequent presence
as chief lover and general of Medb during the Tain Bo. It is also a
beautiful story on its own.

Deidriu, daughter of Fedlimid, is prophecied at her birth to be one for
whom there will be much trouble and many shall die on her account.
Choncobar wished her for his wife and had her shielded from the eyes of
men. Noisi Mac Uisnech, she was told by an old crone, was to be her
love. She bound him to her by geis and forced him to elope with her.
They went to Scotland with a band of warriors.

The king of Scotland heard of Deirdriu and wished her for his wife.
Noisi and his men fled with Deirdriu to an island. When Conchobar heard
of this, he invited them to return to Ireland. Fergus and Cormac were
sent as surety, but when the sons of Uisnech landed they were all
killed by Conchobar's men. Fergus and Cormac, angered at having been
used by Conchobar to gain his own ends, slaughtered Ulstermen, burnt
Emain Macha and went to live at the court of Ailill. For sixteen years,
they sought revenge against Ulster.

Deirdriu spend a year with Conchobar. He asked her who she hated the
most. She said him and Eogan. He sent her to live with Eogan for a
year. But she had prophesied that she would not see her two husbands
together on earth. She thrust her head against a rock, shattered it and
died.

Tochmarc Eimher

This story contains both the courtship of Emer and of Cu Chulainn's
training in arms in Alba.

Cu Culainn, by his feat's of arms, was causing the women of the heroes
of Ulster to fall in love with him. The heroes grew jealous of this
attention and decided that Cu Chulainn should have a wife. Conchobar
sent messengers but they returned emptyhanded. Cu Chulainn himself went
to Luglochta Logo to woo Emer, the daughter of Forgall Monach, the
cunning. When the two met, Emer spoke in riddles, by which she set
tasks for Cu Chulainn to accomplish, if he wanted her.

Forgall Monach, who feared that Cu Chulainn would kill him, sent him to
Alba to visit Domnall Mildemail and learn the further hero's arts from
Scathach. Cu Chulainn went to Alba and learned some arts from Domnall
and then from Scathach, who was at war with Aife. Cu Chulainn defeated
Aife and forced her to bear him a son. Then he returned to Scathach and
completed his training, including the deadly gae bolga, which she had
taught to no one before.

As he was leaving, Scathach prophecied, through the imbas forosni, his
future for thirty years, laying much importance of the events of the
Tain.

He returned to Luglochta Logo and besieged it for a year, till finally,
through the feats learned from Scathach, he conquered the area. Forgall
killed himself by trying to avoid him. Then he took Emer, her foster
sister and their weights in silver and gold, and hurried to Emain
Macha, fulfilling every condition Emer had set in the riddles.

They were married, but not without having to deal with the "droit du
seigneur" imposed by Conchobar. After that night, they never parted.

The King Cycle (or Historical Cycle)

These are a series of stories aiming at the explanation of ancestry and
of certain traditional features, obviously composed by the filidh. The
more important ones are: Orgain Denna Rig, Cath Maige Mucrama, Esnada
Tige Buchet, Scel Binnberlaig, Aedid Maele Futhartaig Maig Ronan and
Buile Shuibni. Many are subject to the later interpolation of Christian
motifs, as are the later stories of the Ulster cycle, but essentially
they all deal with the pre-christian period. The typical kings of this
period are Lugaid Mac Con and Cormac Mac Airt. We shall study here
Orgain Denna Rig and the charming Esnada Tige Buchet. This will be
followed by a commentary on the three sections to date.

Orgain Denna Rig

Cobthach, king of northern Leinster, plotted the death of his brother,
Loegaire Lorc, king of Ireland. He arranged a false burial and was
placed in the coffin with a razor in his hand. Loegaire threw himself
on Cobthach out of grief and Cobthach stabbed him. He then had Ailill
Ane Mac Loegaire, king of leinster poisoned. But Ailill had a son, Moen
Ollam, known as labraid Moen. Labraid exiled himself with Craiphtine
the harper and Ferchertne the poet, both who had defended his honour
against Cobthach.

Labraid went to Scoriath, king of Fir Morca, in Munster, and married
his daughter Moriath. They returned to Leinster with a host of Munster
men and conquered the citadel of Dinn Rig, capital of Leinster. Lebraid
then made peace with Cobthach. He invited him to Leinster and, for the
festivities, built a house of iron. Cobthach came with thirty kings and
entered the house, but then Lebraid gave an order, all exits were
sealed and furnaces were set aflame.

Cobthach died in the oven, with Labraid's mother, who had sacrificed
herself for her son's vengeance.

Esnada Tige Buchet

Buchet was a hospitable man in Leinster who had Eithne, daughter of
Cathaer Mor, king of Ireland in fosterage. Cathaer Mor's twelve sons
ruined Buchet with constant feasting and the old king was powerless so
that Buchet left with his few possessions, his wife and Eithne, bound
for Kells. They lived in a hut, in great poverty.

Cormac Mac Airt, at that time, lived at Kells, for he had not yet built
Tara. One day he saw a girl milking a cow and separating the first and
last milk. He asked her why and she said she brought a man the best of
everything as he had been honoured in bygone days. He inquired the
man's name. She told him it was Buchet. He asked her if she was Eithne
of the Long Side and she told him she was.

Cormac asked Buchet for Eithne, but as the old man was not her father
he could not agree. Cormac trysted with Eithne and she immediately bore
him a son, Cairpre Lifechar. As bride-price, Cormac gave to Buchet all
that he saw for a week from the ramparts of Kells. Buchet had so much
he could not bring it all home to Leinster.

Commentary

These three sections, it will be noted, are fairly similar in structure
and heroic in content. The others suffer influences from Cristianity,
or are still popular, and therefore deserve individual commentaries.

The obvious points about these cycles is that they are arranged in what
seems to be an attempt at historicization by the scribes, using the
oral traditions of the filidh and padding them with dates and
genealogies, mostly invented. It is presumed from what is known of
Gaelic story-telling that we have in manuscript only the bare outlines
of the stories, as the story-teller would have drawn out the tale, if
not a single episode, over an entire evening.

Dinnsenchas, or place-name lore, occupied a large place in
story-telling and often a story, or an episode of a longer tale, such
as in the Tain Bo Cuailnge, could be built to explain the particular
name of a place, fitting it around a deed or deeds of heroic proportion
or a popular tale. Many of the places in Ireland and Scotland have
connections in folklore with the story of Diarmaid and Grainne.

In the two tales representing the Mythological Cycle, we see the
developmesnt of kingship. Nuadha's power is linked to his right arm and
Balor's is contained in his baleful eye. The loss of the "magical"
member causes loss of power. In Oedipus Rex, the symbol of the loss of
kingship which Oedipus must accept is the putting out of his two eyes.
King Harald at the Battle of Hastings is reputed to have received an
arrow in his right eye and to have lost his kingship. More examples of
mutilation can be found (see footnotes 2 and 3).

The whole story of the battle of Moytura revolves around Nuadha's loss
of power and of his successor's greed. In the story of Etain, the
kingdom is unattainable and immortal, as Etain herself symbolizes the
good earth. She is transformed into many shapes but remains essentially
herself and is eventually recalled by her first husband.

The two stories from the Ulster Cycle are fairly straightforward
remscela to the Tain, but they do explain fundamental functions of the
chief and his relationship to his warriors, particularly in the "droit
du seigneur" which Conchobar has the right to exact from Cu Culainn.

The King Cycle seems more devoid of the directly mysterious, perhaps
because such occurrences were related more specifically in the genre
Echtrae. It seems to be more concerned with history and its
explanation. And it must have been known, at least to the scribes, that
magic had very little place in historical events, ergo the development
of Echtrai, to compensate.

Beyond these cycles, we enter into the realm of the direct influence of
Christianity in the eventual outcome of tales, particularly the Acallam
Na Senorach of the Fionn tales. Echtrai have high Christian influences
in the Immrana and lyric poetry is the rersult of Christian literary
learning.


Irish Literature Part 2 The second part of this essay. 



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