PAGAN SCANDINAVIA, H.R.Ellis Davidson, Thames and Hudson, London,
1967

Chapter One, "The Threshold of Religion" (pp. 13-28), begins with
the precarious and ritual nature of a hunting society, the scanty
archaeological record and comparisons with hunters elsewhere. There
is connection to animals, funeral rites and propitiation and
supplication of extra-human powers.

Originally ice covered the North. From eleven thousand years ago
come traces of human habitation, evidence of man's awareness of
animals. Rock carvings from c. four thousand years ago could
correspond to Aboriginal and American means of ensuring continuity
of the animals depicted. Early shamanism is suggested and connected
with a more abstract style of rock carving.

Chapter Two, "The Sacred Tomb" (pp. 29-41), begins with the
introduction of farming and herding. Dolmens are mentioned.

   Without entering into the complicated arguments about the origin
   of megalithic tombs in Denmark, there are two points of
   significance for the religious historian. First, it was now
   thought important to produce permanent and impressive memorials
   for the dead, and men were willing to undertake organized labour
   to achieve this. Secondly, this new type of grave, whatever its
   immediate origin, fits into the general pattern of stone burial
   chambers erected in many parts of Western Europe. The fact that
   in Scandinavia also men turned to follow this prevailing fashion
   must have been due to their religious concepts about the dead.
   p. 31

Long house communities now appear. Megalithic tombs could be
afterlife manifestations of these. Reference is made to a second
funeral ceremony following bodily decay. Venus figurines and the
Mother Goddess are presented, though absent from early Scandinavia.
Axes, amber beads, pots, arrowheads, even canoes have been found and
believed to be votive offerings.

Chapter Three, "The Advent of the Gods" (pp. 42-65), begins with
bronze.

   the Bronze Age in Scandinavia is held to have lasted roughly a
   thousand years, from about 1600 to 450 BC. In this period great
   progress was made in social organization, art and craftsmanship,
   and new religious ideas of considerable potency were adopted in
   the North. Some of the inspiration behind these may have come
   from Central Europe and ultimately from the Near East; others may
   have been already present in Denmark in the Neolithic period.
   p. 42

Burial mound for the individual hero appears. There are oak coffins
in suggestive ship settings. Around the middle of the Bronze Age
cremation replaced burial. The Bredaror burial is described, the
mound seventy-five metres in diametre, rock carvings depicting long
lurer horns, processing robed figures, two horse chariots, etc.
Carvings at other sites are mentioned. The significance is noted of
the axe and its connection to the Sky God suggested. Reference is
made to wagons, chariots and to Tacitus' connection of chariots with
divination. There are bulls, boars, horses, stags.

   Most frequent of all symbols is the ship. This is sometimes held
   in the hands of a male figure, and may represent a votive
   offering. Evidently model ships were offered in this way, for a
   set of tiny ones, beautifully made of gilded bronze with
   concentric circles on the prows, has been recovered from a clay
   jar in a bog at Nors, in Denmark. The carvings imply also that
   cult ships were carried or drawn in religious processions. p. 58

Lur horns are mentioned and figurines of humans and/or of deities,
including a sky god and a goddess. There is no indication of
temples, so ceremonies would have been conducted in the open.

Chapter Four, "The Great Sacrifices" (pp. 66-80), begins with the
absence of archaeological remains in the Fifth and Fourth Centuries
B.C.E. When the curtain rises again, burial has replaced cremation,
at least for the prominent. Broken or bent swords and food are
placed in graves. Celtic influence is suggested. There are peat
bogs.

   Although the peat bogs provide finds from the Neolithic period
   onwards, the offerings deposited there in the Celtic Iron Age
   took on a different character and are on a much larger scale. The
   earliest is at Hjortspring, at what must have been a sacred place
   of the late Bronze Age, where wells were dug in the marsh. These
   proved to contain the bones of oxen, a large and a small dog, a
   sheep and a lamb. The main offering however had been placed there
   about 200 BC, after climatic changes had caused a pool to form in
   the bog. Here lay a large war-canoe which could have held about
   two dozen warriors, with equipment for these and many more. There
   were approximately 8 swords, 138 spears, 100 shields and 20 coats
   of mail, along with wooden utensils and tools, and the war
   equipment had been deliberately and extensively damaged. The boat
   had been dragged to the holy place and then apparently pelted
   with flints as it lay in the water. pp. 69-70

Now come comments in Classical literature and the, to me, surprising
speculation by H.R. Ellis Davidson that it is at this time that
polytheism emerges. Bog bodies occur with only hypotheses to explain
them. Other bog finds including "bowls," the "Gundestrup bowl" among
them, are discussed. The author supports the thought that the
Gundestrup bowl's fabulous animals are just there "to fill up space"
p. 76. The absence of ships from figures on bowls is noted. An
aristocratic warrior cult is presented, along with an admission of
the murkiness of our knowledge of the times.

Chapter Five, "The Dancing Warriors" (pp. 81-110), begins with the
rich finds, including imported booty, from the Migration Period. The
Gallehus horns are examined, a runic inscription confirming their
Nordic origin. There are tentative, unconvincing, identifications of
figures with deities and possible representation of horse sacrifice.
The hundreds of surviving amulets are discussed, their Roman
influence, their designs, luck bearing runic inscriptions, figures.
Helmets from the period are examined. There are the four dies found
at Torslunda. There is the importance of the eagle and the boar.

   The boar on the other hand was associated consistently with the
   Vanir, the deities of fertility. From the Roman period he was
   widely used as a protective sign on armour and weapons, and was
   used by the Anglo-Saxons on both helmets and swords. According to
   the literature, he was a favourite emblem of the early Swedish
   kings, for several of these are said to have possessed boar
   helmets which were national treasures. Both Freyr and Freyja, the
   chief Vanir deities, were said to possess golden boars, and when
   in one of the Edda poems Freyja's worshipper is said to take the
   form of her boar, this may allude to the wearing of a boar helmet
   like that from Vendel XIV, which has protruding tusks and
   resembles a boar mask. p. 97

There is the symbol of the leaping or dancing warrior. Stones on
Gotland, once painted but with only silhouettes surviving, are
considered, their designs, their assumed commemoration of the dead,
and Gotland's connections to the East. Eastern influence on Nordic
religion is a topic of particular interest to this author. Next
comes the wooden burial chamber within a large mound, the impressive
final tribute for outstanding leaders. Various grave goods are
listed, possible Roman influence, the use of tombs as sites for
divination or for local proclamations, and the god Wodan.

   The most vigorous symbolism of the period between the fifth and
   seventh centuries, in which various new practices seem to have
   entered the North, is that associated with Wodan, the Germanic
   god of magic and the dead, whose cult was now adapted for
   aristocratic warriors. The eagle symbol appears to be his, and
   possibly also the Gotland symbol of the turning wheel or flashing
   disc. We know that Wodan was the god who sent men madness, and
   that he was held to give inspiration and intoxication to his
   followers, in particular that form of possession which led them
   to fight with utter fearlessness and abnormal strength. p. 109

Chapter Six, "Powers of Asgard" (pp. 111-148), covers the Viking
Age, mentions the expansion, including to Iceland and the rich
literary remains. There is also the possible Eastern influence of
wooden burial chambers and of human sacrifice. There are ship
burials, evidenced by archaeological excavation and by literature,
such as Beowulf and the account by the Arab Ibn Fahlan. Ship
funerals are seen as linked to the Vanir. It is speculated that the
goddess in the wagon may have travelled around Norway in a ship.
Tapestries from the Osberg ship burial are considered.

There is a look at stones, their figures, the representation in
picture and tale of mythological characters to whom a praiseworthy
warrior could be compared. Included are references to Sigemund and
Sigurd. There is Ragnarok. There is Odin and transition in some
details, such as a woman welcoming warriors.

   The new emphasis laid on the woman who welcomes warriors to the
   realm of the gods marks a change in the conception of the
   valkyries, and is confirmed by description in the literature. The
   earlier conception of fierce female spirits attending the
   war-god, and of a male figure guiding the spear in battle, now
   seems to have been replaced by a different picture, and it is
   possible that this came into Scandinavia from the East by way of
   Gotland. p. 130

There is Odin and his conjectured connection to fish, as well as
eagle. There is Thor, struggling with the World Serpent, wielding
his hammer. In some representations Thor's hammer can be seen
growing out of his beard. Many hammer amulets have been found. Place
names are adduced for the former popularity of gods scantly treated
in literature, Ull and Njord. Sacred buildings are discussed and the
difficulty of identifying such in archaeological finds. Surviving
early churches and their pagoda-like effect of a series of roofs,
as well as their dragon heads may suggest late pagan temples. The
great temple at Uppsala is mentioned and the sanctity of the site
derived from the royal mounds. The Danish site of Jelling is also
discussed.

There is a bibliography and 66 plates richly illustrating the
subject of the book. This is one of the fine books written by an
ever-interesting author.

Michael McKenny March 8-11, 2003 C.E.


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