The Civil Wars, Appian, transl. John Carter, Penguin, Harmondsworth,
1996

After the dedication to Ian Scott-Kilvert and other acknowledgements,
the translator intoduces (pp. ix-xxxiii) Appian and his work. The
eminent Alexandrian was born c. 95 C.E. and composed his Roman History
in Greek c. 145-165. "The Civil Wars" comprise books XIII-XVII of the
two dozen volume work, not all of which survives.

Appian writes within the Greek historiographical tradition, posits
greed and lust for leadership as causes of Rome's civil wars, devotes
greater attention to Caesar's time than to Sulla's, provides fitting
speeches and other rhetorical enhancements for the reader's enjoyment
and is not overly concerned with chronological precision.

Appian's view of the Empire is positive; pursuit of personal power
brought down the Republic, the Empire throughout Appian's lifetime has
offerred practical stability. Appian has drawn, generally without
specific references, on a variety of sources; the composition, focus
and insightful analysis are his own.

Book One (pp. 1-68): Previously Romans resolved internal disputes
peacefully through compromise. Consular authority was balanced by
popular tribunes. Factionalism became violent from the time of the
Gracchi. Personal ambition knew no limit. Military commanders fought
each other. At last, Augustus triumphed.

Tiberius Gracchus forced through a land reform bill. Wealthy land
owners, senators, led by the chief priest, attacked and killed him. His
younger brother passed another land distribution bill. When Cornelius
Scipio was seen as obstructing its implementation, he was killed.
Further violence claimed the second Gracchus' life.

The tribune Livius Drusus attempted legal and land reforms and the
extension of Roman citizenship to Italians. He was killed. Italians
rebelled. After a vicius war, they received citizenship.

Lending at interest violated traditional Roman, as Greek and Persian,
law. The war made debts difficult to pay. The praetor Asellio failed to
solve disputes concerning interest and debts and turned to jurors.
Lenders killed him while he was conducting a religious ceremony.

When Marius sought to replace Sulla as commander against Mithridates,
Sulla led an army into Rome and defeated Marius.

   In this way the episodes of civil strife escalated from rivalry and
   contentiousness to murder, and from murder to full-scale war; and
   this was the first army composed of Roman citizens to attack their
   own country as though it were a hostile power. p. 33

Sulla led his army against Mithridates. Marius and Cinna eventually
entered Rome killing the consul Octavius. Marius died one month into
his seventh consulship. Sulla eventually returned, prevailed after
vicious fighting, entered Rome and became dictator with an unlimited
term. He ruled with some severity, then abdicated. He died aged sixty
and had a splendid funeral. Sertorius in Spain and Sparticus leading a
slave uprising in Italy were defeated.

Book Two (pp. 69-153): Pompey defeated pirates and Mithridates.
Cataline, losing an election, led a revolt. Cicero defended Rome;
Cataline fell. Caesar, Crassus and Pompey allied. Persians killed
Crassus. Caesar took Gaul. Denied continuing command, he swiftly moved
on Rome. Pompey and many senators fled east. Caesar seized Spain from
Pompey's supporters, showing clemency.

Caesar's Pollio took Sicily. Curio bested Roman Pompeians in Africa,
but was slain there by Numidians. Caesar crossed the Adriatic in
winter, endured hunger and defeated Pompey (whose companions ended his
policy of letting deprivation overcome Caesar) in the Battle of
Pharsalus. Pompey seeking refuge in Egypt was killed to please Caesar.

Cassius surrendered his powerful fleet to Caesar. Caesar went to Egypt,
met Cleopatra, conquered Asian lands, inspired his dispirited troops in
Rome and vanquished African and Spanish foes. Romans accorded him many
honours, even naming July after him. Fearing he would become king, a
number of prominent Romans killed Caesar.

Antonius secured the senate's confirmation of the validity of Caesar's
decrees, including appointments to offices and land grants to Caesar's
veterans. The reading of Caesar's will and Antonius' funeral oration
produced a riot.

Book III (pp. 154-208): Antonius raised a sizeable bodyguard. The young
Octavian, Caesar's heir, returned from the Balkans to Rome and gained
popularity by paying, despite Antonius' obstructions, Caesar's bequest
to the people. Antonius maneuvered to deprive Pompeians of military
commands, handing these to Caesarians, including himself. He went to
Brundisium to meet his army from Macedonia. Octavius raised an army in
Italy. Two of Antonius' legions defected to Octavian. 

Cicero opposed Antonius. Cicero fled when Publius Ventidus approached
with two legions. Antonius lay siege to Mutina where Decimus Brutus
sheltered. Octavian and the consuls, Hirtius and Pansa, defeated
Antonius' troops and raised the siege. The consuls both died. Brutus
and Cassius acquired military strength in Macedonia and Syria.

Antonius and Lepidus allied. Octavian oft insultd crossed the Rubicon
and marched on Rome. Defending legions defected to Octavian. Octavian
was elected consul. Decimus, fleeing in disguise, was captured and
executed.

Book Four (pp. 209-278): Antonius, Lepidus and Octavian allied. They
posted a list of names of those they sentenced to death. There are many
moving stories of those dying and those escaping. The three compelled
payment for civil war.

   For this reason the triumvirs finally imposed savage demands for
   money even on ordinary male citizens and women, and invented duties
   on sales and leases. The point was reached where a person was
   proscribed because he had a fine house in town or country. The total
   of those condemned to death and confiscation of property was about
   300 senators and 2,000 equestrians. p. 211

Cassius conquered Rhodes, Brutus took Lycia. A storm battered
Cleopatra's fleet. Pompey's son won a naval fight and secured Sicily.
Brutus and Cassius led a large force through a wilderness to Philippi.
There in the first engagement, Brutus defeated Octavian, Antonius won
against Cassius who chose death. In the second engagement Brutus was
defeated and chose to die.

Book Five (pp. 279-351): The victors celebrated, raised funds and
consolidated. Antonius encountered Cleopatra. Octavian and the consul
Lucius Antonius clashed. Lucius sheltered in Perusia, Octavian besieged
it, repulsed thrusts and accepted Lucius' surrender with relative
clemency. Octavian acquired Gaul and Spain. He sent Lepidus to Africa
leading six legions likely loyal to Marcus Antonius.

Brundisium barred its gates to Marcus Antonius arriving with Pompeians.
Lucius Cocceius reconciled M. Anonius and Octavian. The three allotted
the east to Antonius, the West to Octavian and Africa to Lepidus.
Octavian's hostility to Pompeius deprived Rome of grain. Also further
taxation measure's aroused popular wealth. Antonius used military force
to rescue Octavian from the mob.

Antonius, Octavian and Pompeius reconciled.

   On hearing the news the whole of Rome and Italy immediately praised
   them to the skies for bringing peace: men were rid of war in their
   own country and of the conscription of their sons, rid of the
   violence of military outposts and of the desertion of their slaves,
   rid of the plundering of farmland and of the interruption to
   agriculture, and rid above all of the famine which had brought them
   to the limits of their endurance. As a result they sacrificed to the
   triumvirs along their way as if to saviour gods. p. 317

However, Pompeius continued harrassing Rome's shipping. Octavian
attacked Sicily. Pompeius' ships and severe weather obstructed him.
Octavian called on Antonius to join a new Sicilian invasion, then
declined to sail along with Antonius' fleet. Octavia reconciled them.

Octavian and Lepidus attacked Sicily. A storm damaged their fleets. A
third attempt, despite damage to Lepidus' fleet and Octavian's
difficulties on land and sea, resulted in a stunning victory by
Octavian's admiral Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa.

Lepidus' troops deserted him. Lepidus sought Octavian's protection,
went to Rome and lived there in retirement. Pompeius led a force to
Asia. He fought, failed and yielded to Antonius' Amyntas. Pompeius was
esecuted.

This volume also contains a bibliographical note (xxxiv-xxxvi), a note
on translation (xxxvii-xxxviii), a table of dates (xxxix-xliii), notes
(352-401), appendix considering constitutional terms, Roman armies and
Caesar's Gallic command's termination date (402-411), maps (413-417)
and index (419-436).

This work is especially interesting for the glimpse it provides of the
extent to which unrestrained ambition has influenced human history. So,
even individuals considering themselves citizens of the same country,
speaking the same language, sharing the same culture, religion and
heritage allowed their contentious lust for power to unleash such
devastating violence. It is an arresting manifestation of the species'
pathological condition.


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