Cassius Dio, The Roman History Books 50-56 (The Reign of Augustus),
translated Ian Scott-Kilvert, Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1987

John Carter introduces (pp. 1-29) this key source for the reign of the
man who established the Roman Empire and the Roman Peace. In the Second
Century B.C.E. wealthy men had enriched themselves with expanding
landed estates. Popular politicians and military veterans wanted small
farms. Soldiers depended on individual generals, rather than the state.

   There were of course many other factors: the greed ambition and
   quarrelsome pride of the Roman aristocracy; the vast scale of the
   rewards to be wrung from the provinces; the huge gap between rich
   and poor; the continued existence of political institutions which
   were unsuitable for governing Italy, let alone an empire; the growth
   of the city of Rome into a metropolis; the inbuilt militarism of the
   state; and the social acceptance of violence as a means of self-help
   -- to name only some of the more important. But in the breakdown of
   politics into armed struggle, the allegiance of the armies to their
   commanders rather than to Rome (for what had 'Rome' done for them?)
   was crucial. p. 6

After Caesar's murder, three men (Antony, Lepidus and Octavian) came to
dominate. Octavian overcame Lepidus and Sextus Pompeius. Antony in
Egypt with Cleopatra and Caesar's son was a rival. Augustus (Octavian)
used republican offices (though combined and of extended duration) to
exercise his power. Augustan expansionism included significant failures
(Germany, Arabia and Ethiopia).

Dio was born in Niceae, Bithynia in 163 C.E. When young he went to Rome
and he rose to become consul. He wrote within Greek historiographical
tradition where his balanced literary style and composed speeches were
more important than citing references or providing precise dates. He
views Augustus realistically, appreciating the peace and social
stability the emperor established.

Bk 50 (pp. 35-61): Antony objected to Octavian's removal of Lepidus and
refusal to render Antony agreed upon troops; Octavian especially
disliked Antony's recognition of Caesar's son. The two Antonine consuls
left Rome and joined him in Alexandria. Two prominent Romans came from
Alexandria and disclosed to Octavian the location of Antony's will. It
was read in public and turned opinion against Antony. Rome declared war
against Cleopatra.

Antony moved troops to Actium, Octavian approached. Antony and Octavian
each addressed their men. Antony's ships were larger, Octavian's faster
and more agile. The naval battle lasted hours. Cleopatra sailed for
Egypt. Octavian employed fire to burn the larger ships.

Bk 51 (62-87): Antonius' soldiers and all his allies made peace with
Octavian. Cleopatra feigning victory entered Alexandria and executed
opponents. Pinarius Scarpus commanding Cyrene turned Antony away. He
moved against Paraetonium. Octavian took Pelusium. Antony opposed him,
lost and went to Alexandria; Antony committed suicide. Cleopatra met
Octavian, whom she could not overcome. She committed suicide.

Octavian recognizing the value of Alexandria and Egypt showed clemency.
Rome welcomed victorious Octavian. There was fighting in the Balkans.

Bk 52 (88-125): Cassius Dio here pauses to note the establishment of
the Roman Empire, seven hundred and twenty five tears years after the
city was founded. Kings, republican officers and warlords had ruled.
Now through the literary device of Agrippa's speech (pp. 88-98) to the
emperor in favour of restoring the republic and Maecenas' advice on the
forms of imperial administration, the historian conveys the advantages
and some details of the imperial system.

Senatorial and equestrian membership lists require updating, with a
minimum age of eighteen years for equestrians, twenty five for senators
and thirty for praetors. The Urban Praefect's jurisdiction extends one
hundred miles from Rome and even when consuls are in Rome. A subcensor,
appointed for life, helps the emperor regulate senators, equestrians
and their families. The emperor appoints officials.

Former consuls and former praetors serving three to five year terms
administer provinces. These enjoy a respite before further appointment.
No more than two legions serve in one province, each having a separate
commander. Two equestrians command the imperial guard (praetorians).
Equestrians also command the night watch (vigiles) and serve as grain
commissioner, market supervisor and financial officers.

   'Besides this, there are advantages in having all the business which
   concerns the empire transacted by a large class of officials. By
   this means, a great many citizens will at once prosper and gain
   experience of public affairs; the enjoyment of the shared advantages
   of the empire will be spread more widely among your subjects, they
   will become better disposed towards you, and you will greatly
   increase the total of those who are best fitted at any particular
   time to supply the needs of government. p. 108

Paid teachers educate children of senators and equestrians; teaching
includes riding and weapons training. Necessary military spending,
including for a standing army, and others expenditure is carefully
budgeted. Revenue accrues from mines, sale of excess public property
and reasonable taxation. Imperial frugality encourages voluntary
contributions.

Beautify Rome and hold many impressive festivals there, while avoiding
provincial extravagance. Race horses, valuable military resources, only
at Rome. Discourage sports' obsessions and factionalism. Public
assemblies are inadvisable anywhere. One (Roman) system of weights,
measures and coinage is universal. Provincials communicate through the
governors, foreign embassies with the senate which passes legislation
and tries the errant of its own order. Equestrians handle imperial
judicial affairs (appeals, referrals from the urban praefect, etc.),
correspondence and drafting imperial decrees.

You need no temples, no gold and silver images, no excessive honours.
You need to be informed, but take care to ensure informers' reports are
accurate. Provide an example, keep your word. Oppose those introducing
new religions, forming secret societies, practising magic and feigning
to be philosophers, while conducting fraud. Do what is correct, not
simply what is openly praised.

   For how can men fail to regard you with affection as their father
   and their saviour, when they see that you are both disciplined and
   principled in your life, formidable in war yet disposed to peace,
   that you show no arrogance and take no advantage; when you associate
   with them on a footing of equality, do not enrich yourself in the
   process of levying tribute, do not live in luxury while imposing
   hardships on others, and refrain from licentious behaviour while
   reproving it elsewhere -- in short when you lead a life which is in
   every respect most similar to theirs. p. 123

Augustus enacted Maecenas' suggestions over time and some were enacted
by his successors. Agrippa served fully the empire he had argued
against. Augustus and Agrippa as censors purged the senate. Senators
needed imperial approval to travel beyond Italy, Sicily and Gallia
Narbonensis.

(to be continued...)


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