This brief summary of the English translation of Ibn Khaldun's
masterly study seeks to convey the essence of this pivotal work to
those too busy to read the complete work. Of course, the summary is
a poor substitute. However, in the realm of ideas some value does
remain even in an imperfect precis. It is hoped all glancing at
this humble effort will benefit thereby.
THE MUQADDIMAH, Introduction to History, Ibn Khaldun, transl. Franz
Rosenthal, Pantheon, New York, 1958
There are Acknowledgements (xxiii-xxiv) to named and unnamed helpers,
often librarians, of the solitary translator.
Translator's Introduction (xxix-cxv):
Ibn Khaldun is a very well known autobiographer. He omited the unworthy
(his childhood, his family, save for travels and tragedy). Lacking is
precise understanding of prominent people he knew and his exact
relationship to them.
He was born in Tunis on May 27, 1332 to an important Spanish family
(originally South Arabian) that had migrated to North Africa shortly
before 1248. As customary, he names his teachers. Some of these and his
parents died when the Black Death struck Tunis in 1348-1349.
He had a position, but in 1352 political instability and yearning to
meet scholars drew him away. In 1354 he went to Fez. His early works are
mentioned by others, not by himself. His rare gift was deep perception
and communication of contemporary knowledge.
He lived in North Africa and Spain (Grenada's Muhammad V sent him as
envoy to the Christian ruler Pedro the Cruel) studying and involved in
turbulant politics. In 1375 qietly he began his World History in the
village of Qal'at ibn Salamah. He returned to Tunis, held popular
classes and earned the enmity of the leading jurist Ibn 'Arafah al
Warghami.
In late 1382 he sailed to Alexandria and arrived in impressive Cairo on
January 6, 1383. He was introduced to Egypt's new ruler Barquq who
appointed him professor and judge. His family sailing to join him in
late 1384 died at sea. He went on pilgrimage for eight months in 1397
to 1398. In 1400 he visited Palestine and Damascus.
From early January to late February 1401 he was with Tamerlane for whom
he wrote an account of North Africa. For the ruler of Fez he wrote an
account of Tamerlane and Tatar history. He was judge until his death
five years later.
Ottomans were enormously interested in his work.
His Introduction (Muqaddimah) offers traditional eulogy of history and
presents Ibn Khaldun's insightful thought: influential physical
environment, organization, leadership and inter-relationship of
primitive societies, higher urban societies (Islamic Caliphate highest)
with intricate crafts, commerce and science.
He provides reliable citations and lapses. He rejected astrology and
alchemy, knew much fraud in magic and considered the supernatural
unusual. He understood the necessity of human co-operation. Two
distinct forms of human society are nomadic/rural and urban. Group
identification sustains different groups and their leaders. The
spiritual source of the Islamic Caliphate is an exception.
The population of large states enables sciences, conveniences and
luxuries and also corrodes initial purity. Dynasties naturally rise and
fall as they pursue expensive luxuries, alienating the increasingly
taxed who were identifying with them. At times a nominal subordinate
may hold real power in a declining dynasty. Victors replacing the
defeated retain aspects of higher civilization, preserved also by
education.
Ibn Khaldun held human intellect had constant potential and ancestral
apparent superiority resulted from current political decline, not
innate incapacity.
His sources, named and unnamed, are considered.
In Turkey four manuscripts survive from Ibn Khaldun's lifetime. These
have high reliability, differences being largely the author's own
emendations. These and others are considered and such interesting
points as distinct North African and Egyptian handwriting styles. Ibn
Khaldun continued to revise his text. There were later a number of
editions and translations into Turkish, German, French and English.
These are discussed.
This translation avoids completely recasting the work into current
English and also the distortion of modernizing Ibn Khaldun's ideas
and terms. Seeking a balanced literalism, it breaks down long
sentences, supplies nouns for pronouns, brackets explanatory material
and provides footnotes still incomplete for a work of this magnitude.
The text commences with an invocation (3-5), a foreward (6-14):
commoners and leaders pursue history, crowds are entertained, sages
pursie causes, reach beyond rumours to truth. A triad of historians
is Ibn Ishaq, at Tabari and ibn al Kalbi, surpassing the careless,
the regional writers, the copiers. my work examines civilization,
urbanization, social structure, the rise of dynasties and peoples.
I began with the Arabs and Berbers in the Maghrib and expanded the
work after my eastern travels and studies.
Introduction (15-68): Among historical errors are exaggerated
figures for armies and money, extended geographical reach for
monarchs and generals, accounts of Iram, Harun ar Rashid's opposing
the Barmecides because of his sister's pregnancy, ar Rashid's
drinking wine and other aspersions against upright, prominent
Muslims, rejecting Fatinid dynastic genealogy, doubted for purely
political reasons.
Knowledge of the changing customs of various nations permits a
balanced assessment of assertions and understanding of such
statements as Hajjaj being a schoolteacher's son and the historical
meaning of such positions as judge.
Al Masudi long ago described regions. Now, partly due to plague's
devastations, there have been vast changes. I write of the Maghrib
I know, admitting my limitations.
Foreign sounds previously were written in Arabic with the closest
letter. Here I use the two closest letters permitting readers
better to approximate between them.
I Preliminary (71-85): History, human civilizational data,
considers group identity and contention, dynasties, ranks,
occupations, crafts and sciences. Bias, unreliable or undiscerning
sources and fantastic tales (Alexander's dive to draw bothersome
jinn, starlings bringing olives to a statue in Rome, the city of
ten thousand gates and the Copper City) produce factual error.
I, relying on God, introduce a new field (though the many lost
works may have included it), civilizational study. Languages, laws
and political organization originate from human sociability. This
work considers civilization in general, nomadic and rural
societies, rulership and dynasties, urban civilization, occupations
and sciences.
I:1 (89-93): Human co-operation is essential for life and survival.
I:2 (94-166): The earth is round, habitable land between extreme
heat and cold. Idrisi's map is described (109-166).
I:3 (167-173): People living in more temperate regions are more
civilized. Very fair and very dark pigmentation result from the
sun's excessive faintness or severity in northern and southern
regions.
I:4 (174-176): People in warm countries are joyful, in cool ones
gloomy.
I:5 (177-183): Some rocky and desert lands support healthy milk
drinkers. Excessive eating influences character and health.
I:6 (185-245): Special individuals identifiable by inspired
aloofness, sinless life, religious advocacy, high reputation,
wondrous deeds guide nations. The Koran is the greatest wonder.
Unlike other prophets, using their own words to express divine
ideas, Muhammad received the Koranic revelation literally.
Creation is ordered progressively: minerals, vegetation, animate
life, humanity. Human thought advances from sense perception,
consideration, retentive memory, formation of ideas, reception of
revelation. Soothsayers using rhymed prose speak specifically and
may include incorrect information; prophecy loftier is correct.
Asleep, beyond the veils of the senses, a soul may dream spiritual
truths.
Dreams may be clear, allegorical or confused. Eating little,
focusing and reciting magical words may prepare the soul for
beneficial dreams. Diviners, using mirrors, incense, birds' flight
transcend sense perception to access higher awareness. There are
lower methods used in sorcery. Mystics concentrate on God, any
other knowledge is accidental; sorcerers seek such other knowledge.
Astrology is invalid. Sandwriting (arranging sixteen houses of lines
of one or two dots) is very widespread without indication of
validity. Considering the numerical value of names and using a
system of concentric circles and chords are other techniques that
on investigation suggest answers based on arrangement of questions,
something different from higher awareness.
Solarguard Islam
