THE CATALPA BOW, Carmen Blacker, Unwin Hyman Limited, London, 1986,
1975

This fascinating work, subtitled "A Study of Shamanistic Practices
in Japan," expresses gratitude to, among many others, Hilda Ellis
Davidson.

Chapter One, "The Bridge" (pp. 19-33), begins with the spirit in the
No drama Aoi no Ue addressed by a miko (medium) and sent on her way
toward Buddhahood by an ascetic. The image of the bridge in the play
represents the connection between this world and the expansive
otherworld. The ascetic is able to voyage to the otherworld in a
deep trance. Here is the shaman, a word coming from the Tungus
language, though reaching back through Chinese (sha-men) to Sanscrit
sramana. The characteristics of shamanism include: a gift, often
conveyed by a spirit guide; dramatic initiatory experience, often in
the form of death and rebirth; thereafter, ability at will to alter
one's state of consciousness, voyage to other realms and communicate
with spirits. The shaman is also able to control body temperature.

Japanese shamanism includes a great mountain in place of the
Siberian World Tree. Shamanism is said to have entered Japan from
the southern islands ("Polynesia or Melanesia" p. 27) as well as
from the north. Later came Buddhism. The reforms of 645 C.E. reduced
the importance of the miko.

   The mantic gift of the ancient miko survived in a variety of
   humbler folk--in the travelling bands of women such as the Kumano
   bikini, who like strolling minstels walked the countryside
   offering their gifts of prophesy and divination, and in the blind
   women in the north who, without the music and dance so
   essentially a part of the older miko's shamanic performance,
   transmit the utterances of numina and dead spirits. p. 30

Sources include contact with living shamans and previous records of
historical shamans. Such literary sources include references by
local figures of local activity.

Chapter Two, "The Sacred Beings" (pp. 34-50), considers two superior
types of spirits (kami and benign ghosts) and one lesser type (angry
ghosts). Kami can travel here at will and may be called by twanging
a koto or bow, by pounding a drum, by singing and by dancing. Kami
also appear in dreams. While kami now appear in shapes, often as old
men, traditionally they were thought to be formless, though they
could assume or be persuaded to take temporary seats, often trees or
stones, visible to humans.

   Again, the old word mitegura, handseat, represents an object held
   in the shaman's hand to induce divine possession, as a branch, a
   wand or a marionette. p. 38

Kami respond well to worship, offerings and those who approach
spirit unsullied by blood and death. Likewise, benign ghosts require
offerings, generally for a specified period, thirty three or forty
nine years. They, however, are not bothered by blood or death. Some
times are unfavourable (the fifth month) or favourable (New Year's,
originally a festival of the dead, and Bon, mid seventh month,
another festival of the dead) for summoning ghosts. Angry ghosts
have generally been wronged and require mollifying by various means.

Chapter Three, "Witch Animals" (pp. 51-68), begins with the two main
kinds, snake and fox, though in neither case does the name closely
fit the spirit's shape. Some of these cause suffering on their own,
for some insult or desired end. Others do so because malignant human
fox-owners (some from hereditary fox-owning families) make use of
them. The social circumstances of nouveaux riches families from the
Tokugawa period being accused as fox-owners and the possible Chinese
ku connection are considered. Ku magic, said to go back to at least
1500 BCE, is more a method of magical poisoning than of possession
and transportation of valuables, characteristic of Japanese witch
animal magic. Books relating Chinese ku tales are suggested as
sources for Japanese fox and snake stories. However, another thought
mentioned is that such stories are survivals of family and village
deities in animal form.

Chapter Four, "The Other World" (pp. 69-84), begins by discounting
the three-tiered universe perceived in the KOJIKI: kami above,
departed below and our world in the middle. The theory of Origuchi
Shinobu that gods visited by boats is presented. Then comes the
underwater view.

   According to these legends, certain pools, lakes, caves, ancient
   tumuli or tombs were thought to lead downwards to the miraculous
   underworld of Ryugu. These entrances were guarded by a benevolent
   being--a snake in the watery places, a fox in the dry ones--who
   would obligingly lend cups, bowls and trays to anyone who wished
   to borrow them. p. 76

There is the sentiment of a mountain origin for kami and ancestral
deities. This is a prehistoric opinion, evidenced by prehistoric
offerings made at the foot of mountains. This is intensified when
Buddhism arrives with its concept of the great axial mountain. There
began pilgrimages to special mountains which became quite popular a
thousand years ago. This was a great change from traditional
practise difining some mountains as too sacred for human feet.

Chapter Five, "Ascesis" (pp. 85-103), considers the shaman's choice
or calling to his position. In both ways his steed to shamanism is
asceticism: abstinence from meat, salt, cooked food, "rice, wheat,
millet, barley and beans" (p. 86), standing under a waterfall or
having cold buckets of water poured over one, uttering words potent
because of meaning, potent despite loss of meaning (e.g. Sanscrit
mantras, dharanis and deity names). Noted is the abscence of
breathing exercises from the list of power enhancing techniques.
Seclusion and continuous walking between sacred sites are practised
by ascetics.

A belief in the growth of stones is mentioned, including the
reference in the Japanese national anthem.

   Womb-like seclusion inside a cave in the depths of the mountains,
   continuous wandering from one holy place to another--these are
   the two principal forms in which we shall find the early ascetic
   practising his fasts and cold ablutions and reciting his holy
   text. We shall find too that these two methods of stillness and
   movement are still to be found among shaman figures if Japan.
   p. 102

Chapter Six, "The Ancient Sybil" (pp. 104-126), describes the
powerful miko, intermediary at imperial court and in villages
between mortals and spirits. Fifth and Sixth Century clay figurines
and ancient chronicles depict her: flat hat, beads, sash, mirror,
bow. It is noted that her costume helps attract spirits to her,
unlike feathers, etc. of Siberian shaman that help him to venture
into the otherworld. The ritual was performed in space made sacred.
A musician helped in the attainment of the trance state. An
interrogator interpreted enigmatic replies, helped the spirit depart
and in general ensured the ritual went well. Comparisons are made
with Ainu, Korean and Ryukyu Islands female shamans. Japanese
folktales and legends are examined for the nature of the deities
possessing the miko. Several pages follow about divine snake
marriages. In many tales the snake's bride is named Tamayorihime.

   It was this name which first led Yanagita to suggest that the
   stories were originally connected with a shamanic ritual. The
   name, he argues, is a generic one for a miko, denoting a girl
   (hime) possessed (yoru) by the spirit of a god (tama). p. 118

There follows a look at stories in which a woman is sacrificed to a
serpent, sometimes being rescued, and the modern reading that this
signifies the miko's service at the cost of normal life. The serpent
is seen as originally the deity of water and of "wet rice
agriculture" (p. 123).

Chapter Seven, "The Living Goddess" (pp. 127-139), begins by
mentioning in pre-Meiji times bands of miko abiding in miko villages
and, at the proper season, travelling to carry out their oracular
function.

   These activities were summarily suppressed, however, by a
   directive from the Meiji government in 1873. Anxious to promote
   the 'enlightenment' of the country in accordance with modern
   national principles and determined at the same time to purge
   'pure' Shinto of all that savoured of Buddhism or of ancient
   superstition, the government decreed that all miko who deluded
   the people by professing to deliver messages from the dead were
   henceforth forbidden to practise their calling. p. 127

Miko continued underground, coming again into the open in 1945, when
the American occupiers established religious freedom. Mention is
made of three significant periods for the emergence of New Religious
Movements (shinko-shukyo): mid 19th Century, 1920s and 30s, and from
1945. The founders of such tended to have shamanic biographies. Some
of these are considered, including: "Nakayama Miki, the Foundress of
Tenrikyo" (p. 130), "Deguchi Nao" "the Foundress of the Omoto sect"
(p. 132), "Okada Mokichi, the founder of the now flourishing sect of
Sekai Meshiakyo or 'World Messianity'" (p. 134) and "Kitamura Sayo,
the foundress of Tensho Kotai Jingukyo, more popularly known as the
Dancing Religion." (p. 134)

   From these examples it is clear that the lives of the Founders
   tend to conform to a specific type, in which a number of
   distinctively shamanistic features are present. The sickly and
   eccentric personality of these people before their initiation,
   the shattering initiatory experience of election by a personal
   deity, the change in character which takes place after this
   initiation, the former oddity and feebleness giving place not
   only to an awe-inspiring majesty of personality but also to
   supernatural powers of healing and divination, the effusions of
   'revealed' writing, often in metrical form--all these are traits
   which are found also in the lives of the Siberian shaman. p. 136

Chapter Eight, "The Blind Medium" (pp. 140-163), begins with the
non-shamanic nature of such, their apprenticeship before maturity to
an older medium. However, the cold water treatment, the avoidance of
meat, grains and cooked food, as well as the emergence of remarkable
energy are described. Mention is made of the catalpa bow, now less
prevalent than the one stringed lute, but likely more ancient even
than Empress Jingko's koto. This bow (or a lute), two puppets, a
rosary (of 300 or 180 beads), a drum and a box are given to her at
her initiation. The legend of the horse as the origibnator of the
silkworm is outlined. Mediums speak as kami and ghost, but on
different days. Many kamis are invited to ward the ritual for a
ghost speaking. The distinction is made between new ghosts (up to a
hundred days dead) and old ghosts (more than a hundred days dead and
not to be summoned at some times). Ghosts are asked whether they
have any needs. Generally, a precise request is then received from
the ghost. For example, the ghost of a child may ask that a picture
of it writing exams be placed in a shrine, or the ghost of a maiden
may ask that a fiance be selected whose picture can be put there.
Ghosts often address each relative present which can take some time.

The great gathering of a score of mediums and a thousand clients at
Osorezan Temple on the twenty fourth day of the sixth month is
described: the normal, untrancelike state of the mediums, the
mediums questioning the clients about the ghosts, the stereotypical
comments of the ghosts.

Chapter Nine, "The Ascetic's Initiation" (pp. 164-185), looks at the
hijiri both secluded on mountains and ambulatory. Some are to be
found in Shugendo Buddhism formed as a result of late Twelfth
Century efforts to regularize effective shamanic procedures.

In dream, during a trance journey, or while possessed, one is
summoned to the ascetic life which includes capacity to heal and
divine. Some others, brought to the abyss of desperation by
bereavement or incurable illness, may undertake austerities without
being otherwise summoned. Deities may also intervene in these lives
healing and empowering them. Such deities, whether Buddhist, such as
Fudo Myoo, or pre-Buddhist serpents, possibly symbols of kundlini
energy, can grant helpers, generally in the shape of animals, as
spirit guides to the shaman. There is the tengu bird sometimes
bothering Buddhist monks, sometimes carrying off boys who return
with supernatural abilities.

Chapter Ten, "The Visionary Journey" (pp. 186-207), notes one case
where the founder of a New Religious Movement began with such a
journey, explores medieval Buddhist literature for voyages to hell
and heaven, the latter being less frequent that the former. Some go
to hell for temporary burning because of a fault, some go to allay
the suffering of relatives. One story has a protagonist advised not
to take food in the realm of the dead. Eating heavenly food is fine.
Spoken of is travelling through heaven on horseback, receiving there
beneficial amulets, the cosmic mountain, the prominence there of
En-no-Gyoja, "the archetypal and perfect ascetic, and the founder
of the Shugendo order." (p.196) Folktales concerning the abduction
of boys are told. The account of Deguchi Onisaburo, a founder of
Omoto, occupies pages 202-207. Some scenes are offered of his
frightful experiences in hell, though fortunately shielded by a
potent magic spell. Other glimpses are provided of his time in
heaven. These spiritual journeys took place in 1898, though the
lengthy account of them (in twelve volumes, we are told) was
dictated in 1921.

Chapter Eleven, "The Symbolic Journey" (pp. 208-234), looks at the
physical and spiritual ascension of mountains. Such symbolic
passages into the other world previously took place on a number of
mountains. In recent times only Mount Omine (on August 1st) and Mt.
Haguro (on August 23-30) continue to receive such pilgrimages.
Mentioned are early accounts of the arduous rigors symbolizing
passage through hell, the realm of hungry ghosts, etc. A comparison
is made with the great temple of Borobudur on Java. Presented is
modern ascent, easier by far than ascents centuries ago. Women are
forbidden complete ascent. Among details of interest are: womb
symbolism, use of hot peppers, fasting, avoiding water (even for
washing, shaving, teeth cleaning, mouth rincing), sumo wrestling and
the long life dance (on the occasion being used for this report no
one remembered how it went and chants were substituted). We're told
of the landslide that covered the founders cave, the destination of
the pilgrimage, and when another landslide blocked off the trail a
distance below that, the group halted and performed there its
closing ritual.

Chapter Twelve, "The Ascetic's Power" (pp. 235-251), notes common
abilities, such as communicating with animals, sanctifying a holy
place and exorcism. Three shamanic characteristics uncommon for
others are: fire-walking, pouring boiling water over oneself and
ascending a sword ladder. Ascetics have the sight to discern spirits
and distinguish physical from psychic causes of ailments. There is
also clairaudience. Rarely, an ascetic's deity through possession
can drive out fox-spirits or prescribe means to bring rest to
ancestral spirits. More commonly, effective recitation of potent
words achieves such ends. Fire-walking and sword-climbing are seen
as symbols for shamanic control of fire and ascent in trance to
heaven.

Chapter Thirteen, "Village Oracles" (pp. 252-278), considers joint
effort by medium and ascetic, e.g. ascetic questioning kami and when
finished sending them out of the medium. Reference is made to
Buddhist influence from the Ninth Century, to the early use of
children as mediums and to the decline of village oracles in recent
times. Village oracles are much concerned with agricultural details
of sowing and yield of various crops and with such issues as
disease, fires and theft. Questions can be posed most of the night
with the medium periodically brought to consciousness and allowed to
rest. Answers, especially through impressive mediums, are short,
sometimes single words. The oracle performed into the 60s in Sakata
was noteworthy in that ascetics could also function as mediums.
There a number of yamabushi (Shugendo ascetics) in succession served
as mediums. Elsewhere a local farmer could become possessed, though
the cold water austerity and other temporary deprivations could be
prerequisites. Such are in decline and miko can be hired, though not
always have such convinced villagers spirits are effectively housed.

Chapter Fourteen, "Mountain Oracles" (pp. 279-297), begins with
Percival Lowell's account of a three man ritual on Mt. Ontake in
1891 with each person interchangeably assuming each of the three
roles (medium, interrogator, onlooker). There is mention of ko
(mountain pilgrim clubs) and the uniqueness of the Mt. Ontake ko in
this conducting of oracles on the mountain. Nearly every Japanese
province contains ko for Mt. Ontake. Carved and inscribed megaliths
up the mountain commemorate the ascetics of previous generations. At
any of these one could encounter a ko attending one of its entranced
members. However, it is suggested that the most impressive trances
are those conducted at the shrine at the top of the mountain.

There is Mr. Omono Yoshio encountered twice, once as interrogator of
a succession of possessed mediums of his ko and four years later as
one himself possessed and without an interrogator giving voice to a
deity (an ascetic who had died twenty years previously) addressing
the ko members one by one. There is Yoshimura Ijuro, master of
nagauta chanting, leader of a ko whose medium was Yoshimura's
daughter.

There is the highly significant ritual lighting of the bonfire near
the mountain top on August 8th.

   Three curious wooden circles, like an intricate latticed
   woodhenge, rose a little higher than a man and about ten feet
   across. I had examined them a few hours earlier, in daylight, and
   had seen that they were constructed entirely from the small slips
   of pine wood called gomagi, just big enough to accommodate a
   man's name, age and heart's desire, written with a brush. Most of
   the wishes were stereotyped and impersonal: freedom from illness,
   harmony at home, prosperity in the family business. They had all,
   many thousands of them, been carried up the mountainside on the
   previous day, and had been built into the circles by a team of
   believers a few hours before. p. 295

This is ceremonially burned beneath an almost full moon in the early
morning hours. The chapter finishes with the author's disappointment
with the thrust of modern civilization between her 1963 and 1967
pilgrimages, with a paved road up to the seventh (of ten) stage and
loudspeaker and TV cameras at that significant fire lighting ritual.

Chapter Fifteen, "Exorcism" (pp. 298-314), mentions the common
method of transferring an annoying spirit from the body of one
afflicted into a medium whose voice will answer an ascetic
interrogator of the spirit. Four types of possession are enumerated:
strictly physical, auditory and visual hallucination included,
personality disorder and complete possession. Prominent specialists
in such cases are the priests of Nicheren Buddhism. One hundred days
of rough austerities beginning on November 1st endow these priests
with the capacity to handle inferior spirits. A number of pages
mention Hotta Ryusho Shonin's (of Kanazawa Temple) procedure with
his mother as medium for the temple deity: written correspondence,
initial confrontation with possessing spirits and quicker subsequent
dealing with spirits. The Lotus Sutra is a principal arm here.

The Nicheren Barakisan Myogyoji Temple does not use a medium,
enlisting the one afflicted to recite extensively. Several dozen
patients can be accommodated in the dormitory and recitation room.
The priest interrogates spirits who speak through the mouths of the
people the spirits are afflicting. The priest asks first, "Are you
going to turn over a new leaf?" (p. 311) Then he asks when and where
the attacks started, what form the attacks are taking and why:
spite, vengeance for an insult, a request? In addition to scolding
the spirit and attending to its stated concerns, it is entitled to a
little shrine where it may be daily worshipped.

Chapter Sixteen, "Conclusion" (pp. 315-316), mentions the modern
disappearance of the shamanic way of perceiving reality.

There is an appendix (pp. 317-320) on sword climbing. Bare foot
ascetics ascend a ladder of thirteen swords and then, as in
fire-walking, anyone may climb the ladder under the spiritual
protection of the ascetics.

There are also notes, a glossary five and a bit pages long, and
about a dozen pages of Select Bibliography.

This fascinating volume is highly recommended.


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