RELIGIOUS CONFLICT IN FOURTH CENTURY ROME, Brian Croke and Jill
Harries, Sydney University Press, Sydney, Australia, 1982

Here in some 120 pages are 94 annotated items in translation dealing
with the Fourth Century clash of religions in the city of Rome. It
begins with two passages from the historian Ammianus Marcellinus and
two from the panegyricist Claudian on the splendour of the capital.
Then come the Christians Prudentius and Paulinus of Nola, quickly
presenting the cause of conflict:

   Grant, Christ, the prayers of your Romans that the city through
   which you have brought all into a single religion may be
   Christian...Let her see her separated regions join us in one
   state of grace. Let Rome's founder, Romulus, become a member of
   the faith and Numa himself become a believer. The Trojan
   aberration still confuses the senate of Catos, and honours at
   secret hearths the Phrygians' exiled deities. Two-faced Janus and
   Sterculus (450) -- I shudder to name so many of the fathers'
   monstrosities -- and old Saturn's festal day are worshipped by
   the senate. Wipe out this shame, O Christ. Send down you servant,
   Gabriel, so that blind and straying Iulus may recognize the true
   God.  pp. 7-8

   The neglected images in the empty temples tremble (70) when
   struck by the pious voices, and are overthrown by the name of
   Christ. Terrified demons abandon their deserted shrines. The
   envious Serpent pale with rage struggles in vain, his lips
   blood-stained, bemoaning with his hungry throat the redemption of
   man, and at the same time now, with unavailing groans, (75) the
   predator writhes around his dry altars cheated of the blood of
   sacrificial cattle. pp. 9-10

Then come the Edicts of Toleration by Galerius (311 C.E.) and by
Constantine and Licinius (313 C.E.) and three passages from Eusebius
quoting Constantine's favours to Christians. Then follow quotes from
the Theodosian Code of the favours of Christian emperors to
Christians and their restrictions on pagans: prohibiting pagan
priests from entering a private dwelling, harmful magic, though
cures and beneficial weather magic are specifically exempted, pagan
sacrifices and pagan temples.

   We command that all those proved to be devoting themselves to
   sacrificing or worshipping images be subject to the penalty of
   death. 19 February 356 p. 20

   Let all temples in the countryside be demolished without
   disturbance or upheaval. With their overthrow and removal, all
   material basis for superstition will be destroyed. 10 July 399
   p. 25

There is a passage from Ammianus on public sacrifice in time of
need, and one from Zosimus about the repealing of a law prohibiting
pagan nighttime celebrations.

A central theme of this book is the great debate concerning the
Altar of Victory. The more than two page introduction explains the
significance of the altar dating from 29 B.C.E. in the reign of
Augustus:

   The Altar of Victory was of major political significance.
   Senators traditionally burned incense and offered libations
   before the altar, on which oaths, including the customary oath of
   loyalty to an emperor on his accession, were also taken. Such
   rites would naturally be offensive to the increasing number of
   Christians in the senate. p. 28

The book quotes first Ambrose's Letter XVII:

   3. Since, then, most Christian emperor, you should bear witness
   of your faith to the true God, along with enthusiasm for that
   faith, care and devotion, I am surprised that certain people have
   come to harbour expectations that by imperial edict you might
   restore to the pagans' gods their altars and also provide funds
   for the celebration of pagan sacrifices. p. 31

   14. How will you reply to the bishop who says to you: 'the Church
   does not ask you for gifts, for you adorn the pagans' temples
   with your offerings? The altar of Christ spits at your presents,
   as you have set up an altar to idols; the voice is yours, yours
   is the hand, the subscription is yours and yours the deed. Our
   Lord Jesus refuses and spurns your obedience, because you obey
   idols, for he said to you, "no man can serve two masters".
   pp. 33-34

This is followed by the stirring appeal to the emperor by Symmachus,
Praefect of Rome:

   2. I am therefore charged with a double duty, to carry out public
   business as your Prefect and to put forward the case entrusted to
   me by my fellow-citizens as their delegate. p. 35

   9. Let us now imagine that the figure of Rome stands before you
   and addresses you thus: 'Best of princes, father of your country,
   respect my length of years which pious observation of my rituals
   has ensured me. Let me employ the rites my ancestors used for
   they are not a matter of regret. Let me live my own way, since I
   am free. Through this worship I brought the whole world under the
   rule of my laws, these sacred objects drove Hannibal from our
   walls, the Gauls from the Capitol. Have I been preserved then
   only to be reproached now for living so long? p. 37

He appeals that the ancestral gods be left in peace, that there be
tolerance of a variety of understandings, that support be restored
to the Vestals:

   14. Freedmen receive legacies, and slaves are not denied the
   proper provision made for their benefit in wills. Are only
   virgins and priests of the sacred rites to be debarred from the
   security derived from the right to inherit? p. 38

Ambrose wrote a rebuttal some ten pages long, acknowledging the
golden words of the mellifluous Symmachus, but denouncing the
counterfeit pagan gods, praising the virtue of Christians, while
belittling the Vestal virgins.

   Yet how many virgins have the promised rewards created? Barely
   seven girls have been accepted as Vestals. See the whole number
   attracted together by the sacred headbands, the purple-dyed
   dresses, the processions on their litters surrounded by their
   escort of priests, the enormous priviliges, the huge salary and,
   finally, the prescribed period of chastity. p. 43

He speaks of progress, mocks pagan appeals to history, for example,
saying it was only a goose, not divine intervention, that saved the
Capitol from the Gauls, and speaks of the insult to Christians of
being present for pagan sacrifices. He was successful in halting the
restoration, until the reign of Eugenius, though Theodosius removed
it permanently.

There follow extracts of a sermon by Ambrose commemorating the
recently deceased Valentinian II and praising his anti-pagan policy,
and a letter from Ambrose to the emperor Eugenius urging him to
continue this intolerance. Next comes a couple of pages from
Rufinus' continuation of Eusebius' ECCLESSIASTICAL HISTORY
concerning pagan revival, predictions of Eugenius' military victory
and the triumph of the Christ-favoured Theodosius. Zosimus provides
a glimpse of the interaction between Theodosius and the pagan
senators:

   Having summoned the Senate, which still abided by its ancient
   rites handed down from our ancestors and which was not to be
   brought to agree with those who despised the gods, he addressed
   it, exhorting it to abandon what he called its previously held
   'error' and take up the Christian faith, the message of which is
   forgiveness for every sin and every impiety.

   2. Nobody obeyed his call nor was anyone persuaded either to
   abandon the ancestral rites transmitted to them from the
   foundation of the city or to prefer to them an absurd belief (for
   by constant adherence to their former rites for about one
   thousand two hundred years their city had remained unconquered,
   whereas they were ignorant of the consequences if they exchanged
   this faith for another). Theodosius therefore at this point
   announced that the expense of pagan rites and sacrifices was a
   burden on the public treasury, and that he intended to abolish
   them, as he did not approve of their performance, and, moreover,
   that further funds were required for military expenditure.
   pp. 62-63

And, for this reason, opines Zosimus, triumphed Alaric's barbarians
over Rome.

Then follows several pages from Prudentius' "Against Symmachus". He
speaks of the pagan gods being tossed into hell, of victorius
Christian military might, of Theodosius calling on Rome to renouce
her pagan error and follow Christ, of the numerous Christians and
the paucity of the deluded.

   Look again at the illustrious hall where site the light of our
   state; only with difficulty will you find a few minds still
   clouded with pagan frivolities, (575) tentatively clinging to the
   worn-out rituals, choosing to keep to the darkness, though it is
   banished and shutting their eyes to the glorious noonday sun.
   p. 68

This is followed by Ambrose's eulogy of Theodosius (d. January 17,
395 C.E.) describing him as a great Christian deservedly in heaven,
with his opponents, of course, in hell.

Then comes a chapter titled "Anti-Pagan Polemic." This starts with
extracts from Prudentius' "Against Symmachus II." It includes the
position that times have progressed and humanity has reached the age
of maturity, as demonstrated by its accepting Christianity. It also
advances the view that the true God has granted military victory to
Christian rulers. Such optimism the book's editors remind readers
disappeared with Alaric's sacking of Rome in 410 C.E.

Two anti-pagan poems follow, making fun of those who worship the
gods in a variety of pagan ways, mocking various deities and even
the philosophers, including Plato. Then we have xix. 84-158 of
Paulinus of Nola.

   Nor any longer shall Greece consult in vain the silent oracle of
   Delphi, but despise and trample down their own Olympus as they
   mount up to Sion, where on the high summit Christ shall press his
   easy yoke upon his child's neck. p. 90

Prudentius X.1007-50 is next, conveying that poet's less than
thrilled response to pagan sacrifices. And Fermicus Maternus in "On
the Error of the Pagan Religions" is quoted revealing pagan secrets
and attributing paganism to the devil. Ambrosiaster finds fault,
apparently, with there being pagan goddesses, objects to nighttime
sacrifices and rejects following ancestral ways:

   Murderers or homosexuals or adulterers or other criminals could
   have produced a defence for their forbidden practices on this
   very ground, as they are ancient and began with the beginning of
   the world, whereas it is really from this fact that they should
   better understand the error of their ways, as what is culpable
   and shameful has clearly been bad from the first, while the
   honourable and sacred is deserving of worship: also that which
   was shameful and bad before cannot become holy and free of blame.
   p. 97

Chapter Five, "Christian and Pagan Aristocrats at Rome" (pp 98-121),
begins with three pages describing the leisured, administrative  and
learned literary life of aristocrats. It introduces Symmachus. There
is an inscription by the son of Symmachus and quotes from two
letters of Symmachus, concerning the case of a Vestal who chose to
end her virginity, and recommending a Christian bishop. There are
inscriptions to Praetextatus, including the moving words of his
widow:

   Because of you everyone proclaims me holy and blessed, since it
   is you who spread my goodness throughout the world. Although
   unknown I am known to all. With you as my husband how could I
   fail to please? The matrons of Romulus' city seek me as a model
   and regard their offspring as beautiful if it resembles yours.
   Men and women alike both seek after and acclaim the honours which
   you, my teacher, have given me. Now, robbed of all this I, your
   grief-stricken wife, am wasting away. Happy would I have been had
   the gods granted that my husband had outlived me. Yet I am happy
   because I am your, were yours and soon shall be yours after
   death. pp. 107-108

The contrasting sentiment of St. Jerome is noted:

   'he now lies forsaken and naked, not in a shining white palace in
   heaven as his unfortunate widow falsely declares, but in the
   filthy darkness of hell'. p. 108

There follow several letters from Symmachus to Praetextatus speaking
of friendship duties and leisure. These are followed by an
introduction to Flavianus, an inscription and letters to Flavianus
from Symmachus, referring to current affairs (such as an expected
famine at Rome) and priestly matters.

   The ceremonies of the gods and the prescribed feasts of the
   divine beings are known to us. Unless by chance you demand that I
   alone take on your turn in the rites and, as is customary for the
   divine cult to demand, you put your obligations onto me. Enjoy an
   abundance of luxuries; we will take care of responsibilities. But
   remember when your holidays are over to make participants in your
   luxury those whom you strove so hard to have as fasting
   companions. p. 114

Last are the inscriptions to the Christian Probus and letters of
recommendation from Symmachus to Ambrose.

In addition to the explanatory notes in introductions to sections
and at the bottom of pages, there are: a glossary of deities and
rites mentioned, a two and a half page long bibliographical note,
and index of the documents from which the extracts come and a
general index.

This little book is a very valuable repository of Fourth Century
thought, alas, depicting the so very incomplete attainment by the
monotheists of religious tolerance.

 
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