THE FLORENTINE RENAISSANCE, Vincent Cronin, Fontana, Bungay, Suffolk,
1972 (1967)

This well written presentation of Fifteenth Century Florence begins with
a two page preface noting the watershed nature of the period, the
significance of Florence and the less than simple nature of a time
perhaps too facilely called Renaissance.

Chapter One, "The City and its Citizens" (pp. 17-34): Outlined are: the
geography of the Arno Valley, early Etruscan and Roman settlement,
Medieval Florentine commercial activity characterized by fair dealing,
shrewd precision and eloquence, the primacy of money over noble birth,
religious sentiments and consequent humane works, such as orphanages,
homes for the aged and twenty eight small hospitals where worked sixty
doctors.

Chapter Two, "A Turning Point" (pp. 35-47): Classical literature,
largely forgotten, began to re-emerge. Calluccio who found Cicero's
EPISTOLAE FAMILIARES in 1392 argued, against Christian intolerance, that
Classical historians offered practical advice for statesmen. He,
employing Ciceronian republican sentiment, opposed Milan's imperialist
Giangaleazzo (d. 1402). Florence endured siege, becoming highly enamored
of the Classics.

Chapter Three, "The Classical Ideal" (pp. 48-60): Niccolo Niccoli sent
Poggio Bracciolini hunting Classical manuscripts. Poggio found in 1416
in St. Gall monastery a neglected Quintilian, wrote out a copy and sent
that to Niccoli. This was one step in the reintroduction of Classical
literature and thought. Greek was studied again. In 1397 Emmanuel
Chrysolorus arrived from Constantinople to teach Greek for the first
time in seven centuries. In 1423 Giovanni Aurispa brought 238 Greek
manuscripts from Constantinople. Suddenly a vast corpus was before the
eyes of Florentine readers.

In 1428 inspired by Quintilian Florence established Classical education,
human studies, "'because they bring our humanity to completion'" (p 55)
liberal arts that "'liberate man and make him master of himself in a
world of free spirits.'" (p. 55)

Among the Classical attitudes met and highly prized was exerting human
effort rather than contemplating the will of heaven.

Chapter Four, "The Republic and the Medici" (pp. 61-84): Cosimo born in
1389 of a family of doctors and bankers studied Classics. Family agent
in lucrative Rome, politically active, driven out by factionalism,
returning from exile to thirty years (1434-1464) of primacy at Florence,
rising above family and group interest to manifest patriotism, paying
heavy taxes, promoting peace in foreign relations and financially
backing Francesco Sforza's overthrow of Milan's despotic Visconti ruler,
in 1455 Cosimo de Medici achieved the Treaty of Lodi, "The first
considered attempt since classical times to preserve peace on a
nationwide basis" (p. 72)

He opposed the papal call for a crusade to regain Constantinople from
the Turks and his peaceful view prevailed.

His son Piero was a patron of the arts, a position Piero's son Lorenzo
continued. Lorenzo faced the economic impact of England's decision to
make more of its own garments. Lorenzo accepted progressive taxation.

Florence was strengthened by freedom of speech and tolerance for a
variety of views. Her interest lay in peaceful activities; mercenaries
were hired to act out the relatively bloodless Italian wars of the time.

Chapter Five, "Man Whole and Complete" (pp. 85-112): The Classics
reintroduced the people of the Renaissance to an appreciation for the
physical body. Florentines now respected married people and women.
Versatility became prized. The sedate pace of Medieval life was traded
for a return to more hectic activity. Humour, especially the quicker
quip, re-emerged.

Cosimo de Medici exemplifies Renewed man prizing "wealth, friends and
honour" (p. 100). He used wealth, flourishing from his banking, to buy
books, fund building projects and sponsor such as Marsilio Ficino's
complete translation of Plato into Latin.

Chapter Six, "History and Religion" (pp. 113-138): The Florentines
valued precision, even in spelling. Poggio Bracciolinni reintroduced
Carolignian script influencing handwriting to the present. Printing
arrived making possible more copies of books. Florentines now wrote
factual history, replacing static concepts with dynamic and progressive
consciousness. Historical scrutiny exposed the fraudulant nature of the
Donation of Constantine. In 1439 Florence hosted a rare council of Greek
and Latin Christians chaired by the Byzantine emperor. Agreement was
found on hoary theological misunderstanding.

Marsilio Ficino, student of medicine, priest, translator of Plato,
upholder of ideal beauty, love and joy, founder of a new Academy,
discerner of harmony among the variety of religious mythic details had a
young disciple, Giovanni Pico, a keen student and defender of religious
agreement. Pico faced opposition from those of narrower faith. Pico also
wrote of the vast range of choice available to humans.

Chapter Seven, "Discovery" (pp. 139-164): Inspired by Classical thought,
the Florentines investigated nature. Pico della Mirandola challenged
astrological fancies, freeing humans to inquire rationally in astronomy
and medicine. Anatomy was keenly studied by physician and artist.
Geography expanded immensely as voyages of discovery, epitomized by
Columbus's to America, illuminated hitherto unknown lands. Amerigo
Vespucci's name was given to two Continents.

Chapter Eight, "The Rise of the Artist" (pp. 165-189): Previously an
anonymous manual labourer, the talented soared in Fifteenth Century
Florence. Filipo Brunelleschi studied the remains of Classical Rome to
inspire his impressive architectural capacity. The Medici renewing
Classical patronage fostered sculpture and painting. Lorenzo revived the
making of mosaics and founded an art school, one of whose pupils was
Michelangelo. Possibly a pupil and certainly moving in Florentine
circles was Leonardo da Vinci. Artistic individuals retained Florentine
communal responsibility.

Chapter Nine, "Sculpture and Architecture" (pp. 190-211): Classical
influence revived depiction of the unclad human form. Tossed away were
Medieval views of the body as the soul's prison. Rediscovered Vitruvius
encouraged attention to proportion in architecture as in depicting the
body. Roman inspiration, use of square and circle, "finely carved
cornice" (p. 207), etc. produced private residences that were works of
art. Near the end of the Fifteenth Century Classical Greek influence
created such as the temple like facade of Lorenzo de Medici's country
home. Arranged were geometrical gardens arrayed with statues and
fountains. Restraint preserved the clear lines of Florentine buildings
from blurring decorations, including statues. 

Chapter Ten, "Painting" (pp. 212-239): Use of geometry and attention to
perspective enabled Florentine artists to offer more realistic
portrayals. They painted the old gods in Classical settings. Proposed
was an understanding of polytheistic deities as aspects of the One God.
Mythology was taken and adapted, including with Christian symbolism, for
themes.

Chapter Eleven, "Magnificent Lorenzo" (pp. 240-267): Lorenzo exemplified
the ideal of versatility. He had a productive, if not happy, marriage.
He had happier affairs, enjoyed friendship and provided patronage,
including the reestablishment of the University of Pisa. Pope Sixtus IV
opposed him, even backing assassins who wounded him in church and there
killed his brother. The survivor was then excommunicated and his state
invaded at the pope's command. Lorenzo went to Naples, supplier of
troops against Florence, and negotiated peace. Lorenzo frustrated
further papal efforts to aggrandize by conquest the pope's family.

Lorenzo's son Giovanni eventually became pope, but Lorenzo had already
died aged forty three. One who fostered peace, prosperity and the arts,
Lorenzo was greatly missed, especially in the events following his so
glorious life.

Chapter Twelve, "A Friar with Lightning" (pp. 268-277): The religious
revivalist Savonarola opposed the modernity of the Florentine
Renaissance which looked for rational justification for Christian
morality, throve on usury and indulged in beauty and pleasures. He was
an effective preacher.

Chapter Thirteen, "Invasion" (pp. 278-298): The young French King
Charles VIII led an army across the Alps, advancing to support his claim
to Naples. Piero de Medici, lacking authority, accepted outrageous terms
of surrender. Rome and Naples submitted withour resistence. The French
were attacked on their way out of Italy, repulsed the attackers and
continued home.  Savonarola's influence was strengthened by the French
invasion. He stood against Pope Alexander Borgia and fell, finally
executed on May 23, 1498. Painting expresses clearly the dark
disappointment of these times.

Chapter Fourteen, "Aftermath" (pp. 299-306): The French invasion was not
the last. Italian city states could not stop the stronger nation states.
Machiavelli, admiring the Roman Republic, felt the times called for one
strong leader and citizen forces replacing mercenaries. The departing
French invaders took awareness and appreciation of the Classics and art
with them. Italian influences also reached Englsnd.

   ...the most important of Florence's immediate legacies to Englsnd was
   the 'complete man' in a form embodying both Christian and humanist
   strains: that is the idea of a gentleman, in the sense of a well-
   educated, versatile, responsible citizen. p. 305

There are appendices considering Charles Haskins proposal of a Twelfth
Century Renaissance, dating, Italy as a whole and the location of works
of art mentioned in the text.

This sonorous volume, replete with brilliant glimpses of individuals and
events during this transformative epoch is a very good introduction to
the period and its influences down to the present day.

Michael McKenny, July 9, 2006 C.E.


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