The History of Italy, Francesco Guicciardini, transl. Sidney Alexander,
Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1984 (1969)

Introduction (xv-xxviii): History discloses the self interest of
powerful people. Reading Guicciardini is to perceive his statements'
qualifications. As Leonardo de Vinci, Guicciardini compartmentalizes,
separates his ideal understanding from his mundane employment. He sees
egos clash, self interests collide and Fortune decide the outcome
beyond human calculation.

He was born on March 6, 1483, was a successful lawyer, in 1508 married
Maria Salviati of a wealthy family, in 1512-1513 was ambassador to
Spain, served the Medici and the Papacy, advised supporting France, saw
Spain prevail and Rome sacked and his fortune fluctuated. He wrote his
History of Italy from 1537 until his death on May 22, 1540. It was
published in 1561 and swiftly translated. This edition contains some
fifty per cent of the original dense and prolix work. The modern reader
feels the Renaissance and realizes its similarity to our political
action.

From The Continental Renaissance, ed. A.J. Krailsheimer, Penguin, 1971:
Guicciardini published nothing during his lifetime. He wrote: Storia
fiorentine (1509) covering 1378-1509; Relazione di Spagna (1514) a
brilliant analysis of Spain; Del Reggimento di Firenzo (1526), dialogue
on the best form of government, Venice's tripartite balance of the rule
of the one, few and many is lauded; Considerazioni (1530) The Church
keeps Italy divided, a natural situation increasing diversity; Ricordi
(1512-1530) private gloomy thoughts concerning continuation of foreign
domination and ongoing corrupt priestly tyranny; Storia d'Italia, his
masterpiece, the first national Italian history, covering 1492-1534,
his prose style conveys his comprehension of the complexity of human
affairs. (pp. 371-376)

Text Book One (pp. 3-75): I write of what is within our memories, the
terrible time since our rulers invited French forces into Italy.
Leaders' imprudence and ambition oft cause enormous harm. Italy c. 1490
was prosperous and peaceful, fortunate more than ever since the Roman
Empire. Lorenzo de Medici deserves much credit for this. He allied
mutually mistrustful Florence, Milan and Naples, quieting powerful
Venice. In 1492 he died only 43 years old.

In 1492 Rodrigo Borgia bribed his way to the Papacy. Piero de Medici
stirred suspicion in Milan and Rome against Florence and Naples. Milan
and Rome allied with Venice, then fearing the fragility of Venetian
friendship turned to France, fanning the young king's yearning for
glory. Ignoring sage advice, Charles VIII asserted his claim to Naples.

Naples' King Ferdinand allied secretly with the Pope. Milan avoided
commitment to Ferdinand's overtures. France ensured peace with Germany
and Spain. Milan's Ludovico Sforza married his daughter with a rich
dowry to the Emperor for imperial title to the Duchy of Milan.

Ferdinand died of pneumonia; his son openly allied with Pope Alexander
VI. Many Florentines, from French trade and recalling Charlemagne had
rebuilt their city, favoured France. Piero de Medici did not satisfy
French overtures. Charles VIII expelled Medici bankers. Alfonso moved
north on land and sea; he sought aid from the Sultan.

Charles was incapacitated by smallpox for a month. His army was very
disciplined and possessed powerful artillery. The Pope suffered
reverses; Ostia fell. Charles and Ludovico passed through Padua. Young
Giovan Galeazzo died; Ludovico hurried to Milan to accept the dukedom.
Refused prompt permission to pass through Florentine territory, Charles
invaded. As France banned Florentine trade and was present in strength,
Piero faced pro French popular will. He went to Charles and yielded
excessively.

Piero was overthrown; Pisans asserted liberty. Charles entered
Florence; Piero fled to Venice which promised support. Threatening war
otherwise, Florence obtained reasonable terms from Charles. Charles
entered Rome; Pope Alexander acknowledged him King of Naples. Alfonso
fled to Sicily; his son Ferrando failed to gain popular support and
sailed to Ischia Island. Naples welcomed Charles on February 21, 1495.

Book Two (pp. 76-109): The preacher Savonarola exerted influence at
Florence. French indolence and insolence aroused popular opposition in
Naples. Charles in splendid ceremony assumed the kingship of Naples. He
left on May 20, 1495. An allied force, many Venetians, assembled to
oppose him. On July 6, 1495 this was defeated with heavy loss.

Ferrando was welcomed into Naples; in Sicily Alfonso died. Charles
crossed the mountains, leaving some troops holding parts of Italy. Now
appeared from America a terrible disease (syphilis).

Book Three (pp. 110-131): While Charles held tournaments at Lyons,
disturbances flared across Italy. While Milan praised Ludovico Sforza,
Venice supported Pisa. When Ferrando died, his uncle Federigo became
King of Naples. Ludovico went to Germany urging Emperor Maximilian to
come to Italy. His fleet wrecked, his attack against Livorno repulsed,
Maximilian returned home. Pisa, strengthened by Venice, resisted
Florence.

Rain delayed Piero de Medici's surprise strike at Florence; he failed
to enter the city. His prominent supporters were imprisoned and
executed. Charles VIII died on April 8, 1498; Louis XII succeeded.
Savonarola was imprisoned, interrogated and executed.

Book Four (pp. 132-155): Louis asserted his claim to Milan. With papal
dispensation, he put aside his wife and married Anne of Britanny. He
took Milan; Ludovico fled to Germany. The initially spiritual Papacy
had acquired material concerns. Bajazet Ottoman ravaged on sea and on
Italian land; Venetians exiled Admiral Antonio Grimani for failing to
halt the Turkish fleet.

Christians went on pilgrimage to Rome for the jubilee in 1500. Forli
fell; Catarina Sforza was imprisoned for a year in Rome. Ludovico took
Novara. The French moved in strength against it. Ludovico's Swiss
mercenaries betrayed him into French hands. He was imprisoned in France
until he died.

Book Five (pp. 156-164): Cesare Borgia campaigned. Capua was sacked.
Lucrezia Borgia married again. Naples welcomed Gonsalves, "The Great
Captain."

Book Six (pp. 165-188): Rome rejoiced when the Borgia pope and his son
drank their own poison; Cesare recovered. Francesco Piccolomini became
Pope Pius III for twenty six days. Julius II succeeded. Cesare Borgia
was arrested and by way of Naples imprisoned in Spain. Venice came to
terms with the Turks. Venetian trade in spices had falled to Portugal.
Spain had discovered American gold.

Spain and France agreed to peace between them. Unpaid troops billeted
amongst Neapolitans despoiled them. Florentine efforts to divert the
Arno to the detriment of Pisa failed. Spain's Isabella died.

Book Seven (pp. 189-190): Pope Julius II personally led forced against
Perugia and Bologna. Cesare escaped prison and died fighting in Spain.
Maximilian invaded Venetian territory; Venice came to terms with him.

Book Eight (pp. 191-207): Ambition and disunity, Italian and foreign,
exceeded peaceful inclinations. The Emperor took offence at Venice; for
various reasons others temporarily opposed Venice. On May 14, 1509
Venice was defeated at Agnadello. Pisa conceded Florentine control;
Florence, notwithstanding previous bitterness, honoured a generous
treaty. Venice retook Padua, capturing Mantua's marquis.

Book Nine (208-229): The Turkish ruler insisted Venice release Mantua's
marquis. A French religious gathering justified war against the Pope.
Pope Julius in person attacked Mirandola which yielded. Chaumont,
French governor of Milan, fell ill and died. The Emperor's proposal for
general peace and the Spanish king's readying of an armada (allegedly
against Africa) caused Louis apprehensions. Peace talks led nowhere.

Bologna rebelled against Pope Julius; the Cardinal of Pavia, papal
deputy there, fled. The Duke of Urbino killed the Bishop of Pavia at
Ravenna.

Book Ten (pp. 230-252): Pope Julius woke from a coma many thought
death. Papal opponents held council at Pisa. Julius placed Pisa and
Florence under interdict and provided them with a neighbour Cardinal
Medici. Julius announced a league to free Italy from foreigners. He
thought to include Spain against France, not considering the fate of
Italy between the two. Swiss forces moved on Milan and withdrew. The
Swiss are less esteemed as their warriors are normally mercenary.

England's Henry VIII joined the league. On Easter Sunday, April 11,
1512 at Ravenna was fought a fierce battle. The allied cavalry was
defeated. The Spanish infantry performed superbly, killing the French
commander when he led French horse against them. Victorious, but
deprived of de Foix's leadership, the French dispersed looting. Swiss
forces caused French troops to leave Romagna; Spanish and English
invaders caused the French to leave Italy to defend France.

Book Eleven (pp. 253-278): Rome and Venice declared financial support
of Naples concluded; Naples argued France had not left Italy as there
still were French garrisons. Both sides found fault with Florence's
neutrality. An allied force moved against Florence demanding Soderini's
removal and the return of the Medici. Soderini called a grand council.
Florence decided Soderini remain; Prato fell. Florence removed Soderini
who went to Ragusa, welcomed the Medici and joined the allies.

Spain occupied Navarre, but refused to invade France; English troops
who had come to Spain to fight France returned home. On February 20,
1513, Julius died; Giovanni de Medici became Pope Leo X. Venice allied
with Louis, Leo organized a counter alliance. France gained and lost
Milan and Genoa.

Book Twelve (pp. 279-293): France obtained peace with England and
Spain. Louis died. Francis became king. Crossing very steep mountains,
the French army obtained Milan. Pope Leo and Francis met, considering
Naples, Urbino, Francis' one year's receipt of France's church revenue,
etc. Spain's King Ferdinand died. Leo took and lost Urbino.

Book Thirteen (pp. 294-325): Pope Leo discovered and punished cardinals
plotting against his life; he appointed thirty one new cardinals. The
Turkish ruler Selim, ascending to the throne by killing his brothers,
defeated Persians and vanquished Mameluke Egypt. Leo planned to
pre-empt Selim striking at Europe. He decreed a five year Christian
peace while a multi-pronged attack against the Turks was readied. Selim
died; Suleiman, allegedly more mild, succeeded.

Maximilian died; Charles V succeeded. In Germany Luther spoke against
indulgences. Popular and ducal support rendered unsuccessful papal
opposition. Charles went to England, Flanders, then Aachen where he
received Charlemagne's crown. In Spain people rose against non Spanish
influences.

Book Fourteen (pp. 326-331): In April 1521 before the Emperor at Worms,
Luther defended his teaching unsuccessfully. Leo gained Piacenza and
Parma; France lost Milan. Leo died; poison was assumed. Adrian VI was
elected.

Book Fifteen (pp. 332-345): On August 29, 1522 Adrian arrived in Rome.
Rome suffered plague; Rhodes fell. France invaded Italy. Pope Adrian
died. Guilio de Medici became Pope Clement VII. The skilled commander
Prospero Colonna died. Warfare previously had been clashing heavy
cavalry; modern artillery and infantry altered that, increasing
bloodshed. French troops went home, repelled following invaders,
pursuing those back into Italy. On February 24, 1525, the French were
decisively defeated at Pavia, Francis himself captured.

Book Sixteen (pp. 346-367) Charles forbade celebration of victory over
a Christian king, urging peace in Europe. He invited his council's
advice concerning the captured French king. Various opinions were
expressed. Charles decided to release Francis for negotiated
advantages. Frances was brought to Spain, signed a treaty and on March
18, 1526 was released.

Book Seventeen (pp. 269-375): Hungary's king and army fell before
Suleiman. An uprising against the Pope entered Rome. Clement signed a
treaty with it.

Book Eighteen (pp. 376-404): Imperial troops, their commander dead,
sacked Rome. Florentines rose. Medici left. Niccolo Capponi became
gonfaloniere. Plague struck Rome and Florence. Pope Clement signed a
treaty and left Rome. King Francis in splendid attire before his court
asserted his readiness to accept the Emperor's challenge to single
combat. England's Henry VIII also declared himself ready to face
Charles. Henry, wishing a male heir, sought dissolution of his
marriage. Pope Clement appeared agreeable without giving approval.

Book Nineteen (pp. 405-424): Andrea Doria commanding France's siege of
Naples joined the imperials. This and plague dispersed the besiegers.
Pope Clement angered King Henry over Henry's divorce. Cardinal Wolsey
was arrested and died on the way to trial. Another uprising in Florence
replaced Niccolo Capponi with Francesco Carducci. On August 5, 1529 the
Ladies' Peace was announced. Pope and Emperor agreed to restore Medici
to Florence. Florence resisting was besieged.

Vienna repulsed a determined Ottoman attack. At Bologna Charles and
Clement conferred. On January 1, 1530, Charles and Italians, excluding
Florence, announced agreement.

Book Twenty (pp. 426-442): After resisting many months, Florence
yielded and the Medici returned to power. Pope Clement responded coolly
to calls for a Church council. King Francis intrigued with Suleiman
against the Emperor. The Turks made a minor incursion and returned
home. Italians sent to help against the Turks returned to Italy.
Barbarossa raided Calabria.

Pope Clement went to France with his niece Catherine who married Prince
Henry. Not long after his return to Rome, Clement died. Aged Alessandro
Farnese became Pope Paul III.


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